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Vitamin D hormone regulates serotonin synthesis. Part 1: relevance for autism
Abstract
Serotonin and vitamin D have been proposed to play a role in autism; however, no causal mechanism has been established. Here, we present evidence that vitamin D hormone (calcitriol) activates the transcription of the serotonin‐synthesizing gene tryptophan hydroxylase 2 ( TPH2 ) in the brain at a vitamin D response element (VDRE) and represses the transcription of TPH1 in tissues outside the blood‐brain barrier at a distinct VDRE. The proposed mechanism explains 4 major characteristics associated with autism: the low concentrations of serotonin in the brain and its elevated concentrations in tissues outside the blood‐brain barrier; the low concentrations of the vitamin D hormone precursor 25‐hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D 3 ]; the high male prevalence of autism; and the presence of maternal antibodies against fetal brain tissue. Two peptide hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin, are also associated with autism and genes encoding the oxytocin‐neurophysin I preproprotein, the oxytocin receptor, and the arginine vasopressin receptor contain VDREs for activation. Supplementation with vitamin D and tryptophan is a practical and affordable solution to help prevent autism and possibly ameliorate some symptoms of the disorder.—Patrick, R. P., Ames, B. N. Vitamin D hormone regulates serotonin synthesis. Part 1: relevance for autism. FASEB J . 28, 2398–2413 (2014). www.fasebj.org
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“Vitamin D receptors have been identified in dopamine neurones in humans substantia nigra [145], and vitamin D response elements on genes involved in serotonin and oxytocin synthesis [189].”
From Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review (2016) · cites this paper as [189]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Patrick, R. P., & Ames, B. N.
- Affiliations
- Nutrition and Metabolism Center Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute Oakland California USA
- Corresponding author
- Patrick, Rhonda P.
- Ames, Bruce N.
- Venue
- The FASEB Journal
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2014-02-20
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 2398-2413
- ISSN
- 0892-6638 (ISSN-L)
- 1530-6860
- OpenAlex
- W2155876431
- Cited by
- 414
- References
- 217
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 20
- FWCI
- 5.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The FASEB Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Vitamin D Research Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, serotonin synthesis, tryptophan hydroxylase 2, tryptophan hydroxylase 1, vitamin D response element, gene transcription, autism spectrum disorder, blood-brain barrier, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, sex differences in autism, maternal antibodies, oxytocin, vasopressin, neurophysin I, vitamin D supplementation, tryptophan
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autistic Disorder, Blood-Brain Barrier, Brain, Brain Chemistry, Calcitriol, Digestive System Abnormalities, Diseases in Twins, Estrogens, Female, Fetus, Humans, Inflammation, Male, Maternal-Fetal Exchange, Models, Biological, Mothers, Oxytocin, Pregnancy, Serotonin, Tryptophan Hydroxylase, Vitamin D, Vitamin D Deficiency, Autoimmunity, Incidence, Receptors, Calcitriol, Vitamin D Response Element, Black People
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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