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Cited by 652Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removalAdvanced oxidation water treatmentWastewater Treatment and Reuse

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 324 of the 325 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 58 of the 254 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Recent Advances in the Remediation of Textile-Dye-Containing Wastewater: Prioritizing Human Health and Sustainable Wastewater Treatment

Open access
Periyasamy, Aravin Prince·2024·Sustainability
DOI 10.3390/su16020495
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Abstract

Water makes up most of the Earth, although just 0.3% is usable for people and animals. The huge oceans, icecaps, and other non-potable water resources make up the remaining 99.7%. Water quality has declined in recent decades due to pollution from population growth, industry, unplanned urbanization, and poor water management. The textile industry has significant global importance, although it also stands as a major contributor to wastewater generation, leading to water depletion and ecotoxicity. This issue arises from the extensive utilization of harmful chemicals, notably dyes. The main aim of this review article is to combine and assess the impacts of textile wastewater that contains dyes and chemicals, and to examine their potential consequences on human health, aquatic health, and the environment. Moreover, the dedicated section presents an in-depth review of various environmentally sustainable approaches for the management and treatment of wastewater in the textile industry. These approaches encompass bio adsorbents, biological methods, membrane technology, ion exchange, advanced oxidation processes, as well as physicochemical and biochemical processes. Furthermore, this study also evaluates the contemporary progressions in this particular domain, taking into account the corresponding advantages and disadvantages. Finally, this article highlights the significance of recovering and reusing dyes, alkalis, and electrolytes in wastewater treatment. Additionally, it emphasizes the necessity of performing technoeconomic analyses and life cycle assessments (LCA) on wastewater treatment plants.

Overview

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TL;DR

This review consolidates evidence on the health and environmental hazards of dye-containing textile wastewater and surveys sustainable remediation options, from bioadsorbents and biological treatment to membranes, ion exchange, and advanced oxidation. It argues for recovery and reuse of dyes, alkalis, and electrolytes, and for technoeconomic and life cycle assessment of treatment plants.

Key findings

  • The textile industry accounts for roughly 20% of global water pollution and ranks as the second largest polluter after the oil industry; over 8000 chemical species are used, and of ~800,000 tons of dyes produced annually, 10–15% is lost to the environment. Over 10,000 synthetic dye varieties exist, ~70% azo type, and azo dyes account for over 60% of industry usage.
  • Reported removal performances vary widely by method: Fenton oxidation achieved 98% color removal and 85% COD removal at pH 3; sequencing batch reactor decolorization reached up to 97% with COD removal up to 98%; enzymatic treatment can reach up to 90% decolorization; bacterial isolates removed MO at 95%, Reactive Yellow at 84%, and Reactive Black 5 at 100%; algae achieved 96% removal of Acid Red-274 and 92% of Malachite Green; cactus and aloe vera juice flocculants gave >85% color removal with 90% removal of total, suspended, and dissolved solids.
  • Bioadsorbent capacities span orders of magnitude (Table 2), e.g., potato peel-based sorbent for Direct Blue 71 at 1704 mg/g (pH 3), non-cross-linked/cross-linked chitosan fibers for Acid Orange 7 at 4523 mg/g (pH 7), calcium-rich biochar for Malachite Green at 12,502 mg/g, and rice husk ash for Brilliant Green at 66 mg/g.
  • Health and ecological harms documented include disrupted photosynthesis and dissolved oxygen depletion, accumulation in food chains, carcinogenic/mutagenic and immunological/dermal effects, genotoxicity (e.g., Disperse Red 1), and in fish, dose- and duration-dependent erythrocytic and gill micronuclei, reduced feed consumption and growth.

Methods

  • Narrative review (no primary data collection) synthesizing literature on textile wastewater treatment; the stated aim is to combine and assess impacts of dye- and chemical-containing textile wastewater on human, aquatic, and environmental health and to review sustainable treatment approaches with their advantages and disadvantages.
  • Treatment categories reviewed: bioadsorbents (agricultural/food wastes, chitosan, tea waste, etc.), biological methods (bacteria, fungi, algae, enzymes such as laccases, peroxidases, azoreductases), membrane separation (UF, NF, RO, forward osmosis), ion exchange, evaporation, granular activated carbon, advanced oxidation processes (Fenton, H2O2/UV, ozonation, photocatalysis, Z-scheme), sequencing batch reactors, hybrid technologies, sludge management, and zero liquid discharge with recovery of electrolytes, alkali, and dyes.
  • Supporting tables compile comparative data: Table 1 (advantages/disadvantages of common techniques), Table 2 (bioadsorbent capacities and conditions), plus supplementary Tables S1–S3 and Figure S1.

Limitations

  • The paper states no explicit limitations section; it notes that relying on a single treatment procedure may not effectively degrade highly contaminated dyes because intermediates require additional treatment steps and cost, and that sustainable wastewater treatment produces less sludge but "does not comply with norms and standards."
  • Evident from the text: this is a review without new experimental data, so reported removal figures are drawn from heterogeneous cited studies with differing dyes, conditions, and scales and are not directly comparable; the text also notes that the rationality of color removal in biological processes "has not been empirically shown," and that enzyme use is hindered by instability, variable activity, and cost.
  • Evident from the text: several sections are incomplete or truncated (e.g., the bioadsorbent discussion breaks off mid-sentence, and the bacteria section ends mid-list), and the review relies on figures and supplementary tables not reproduced in the main text.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/su16020495

Cites

324 of 325 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Figures

Figure 1 Classification of dyes used in the textile industry. Figure 1. Classification of dyes used in the textile industry.
Figure 1 Classification of dyes used in the textile industry. Figure 1. Classification of dyes used in the textile industry.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 2 Textile effluent from industry ( a ) and in the water streams ( b ) that flow in the Noyal River ( c -e ) in India, and the influence of these effluents on the agricultural land ( f -h ) (pictures taken in April 2022 and reprinted with the permission of ACS [26] licensed under CC-BY 4.0). Figure 2. Textile effluent from industry ( a ) and in the water streams ( b ) that flow in the Noyal River ( c -e ) in India, and the influence of these effluents on the agricultural land ( f -h ) (pictures taken in April 2022 and reprinted with the permission of ACS [26] licensed under CC-BY 4.0).
Figure 2 Textile effluent from industry ( a ) and in the water streams ( b ) that flow in the Noyal River ( c -e ) in India, and the influence of these effluents on the agricultural land ( f -h ) (pictures taken in April 2022 and reprinted with the permission of ACS [26] licensed under CC-BY 4.0). Figure 2. Textile effluent from industry ( a ) and in the water streams ( b ) that flow in the Noyal River ( c -e ) in India, and the influence of these effluents on the agricultural land ( f -h ) (pictures taken in April 2022 and reprinted with the permission of ACS [26] licensed under CC-BY 4.0).CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 3 Influence of dye-containing textile wastewater on the environment and health hazardous. Figure 3. Influence of dye-containing textile wastewater on the environment and health hazardous.
Figure 3 Influence of dye-containing textile wastewater on the environment and health hazardous. Figure 3. Influence of dye-containing textile wastewater on the environment and health hazardous.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 4 Negative impacts of textile dyes containing wastewater and their influence on aquatic life and human health. Figure 4. Negative impacts of textile dyes containing wastewater and their influence on aquatic life and human health.
Figure 4 Negative impacts of textile dyes containing wastewater and their influence on aquatic life and human health. Figure 4. Negative impacts of textile dyes containing wastewater and their influence on aquatic life and human health.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 5 Different types of bio adsorbents for the dye removal; chitosan ( a ) (reprinted from [159]); tea waste ( b ) (reproduced from [160] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License). Figure 5. Different types of bio adsorbents for the dye removal; chitosan ( a ) (reprinted from [159]); tea waste ( b ) (reproduced from [160] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License).
Figure 5 Different types of bio adsorbents for the dye removal; chitosan ( a ) (reprinted from [159]); tea waste ( b ) (reproduced from [160] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License). Figure 5. Different types of bio adsorbents for the dye removal; chitosan ( a ) (reprinted from [159]); tea waste ( b ) (reproduced from [160] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License).CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 6 Treatment of textile wastewater by biological and biosorption methods. Figure 6. Treatment of textile wastewater by biological and biosorption methods.
Figure 6 Treatment of textile wastewater by biological and biosorption methods. Figure 6. Treatment of textile wastewater by biological and biosorption methods.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 7 Site-directed mutagenesis of laccase from B. amyloliquefaciens for improving indigo carmine decolorization ( a ) (reproduced from [220] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License). Azoreductase on azo dyes with the formation of colorless amines ( b ) (reprinted from [221]). Figure 7. Site-directed mutagenesis of laccase from B. amyloliquefaciens for improving indigo carmine decolorization ( a ) (reproduced from [220] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License). Azoreductase on azo dyes with the formation of colorless amines ( b ) (reprinted from [221]).
Figure 7 Site-directed mutagenesis of laccase from B. amyloliquefaciens for improving indigo carmine decolorization ( a ) (reproduced from [220] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License). Azoreductase on azo dyes with the formation of colorless amines ( b ) (reprinted from [221]). Figure 7. Site-directed mutagenesis of laccase from B. amyloliquefaciens for improving indigo carmine decolorization ( a ) (reproduced from [220] as distributed by Creative Commons Attribution License). Azoreductase on azo dyes with the formation of colorless amines ( b ) (reprinted from [221]).CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 8 Classification, advantages, and disadvantages of membrane technology. Figure 8. Classification, advantages, and disadvantages of membrane technology.
Figure 8 Classification, advantages, and disadvantages of membrane technology. Figure 8. Classification, advantages, and disadvantages of membrane technology.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 9 Process flow of conventional treatment and combination of MBR-NF process (reprinted from [240] with the kind permission of Elsevier). Figure 9. Process flow of conventional treatment and combination of MBR-NF process (reprinted from [240] with the kind permission of Elsevier).
Figure 9 Process flow of conventional treatment and combination of MBR-NF process (reprinted from [240] with the kind permission of Elsevier). Figure 9. Process flow of conventional treatment and combination of MBR-NF process (reprinted from [240] with the kind permission of Elsevier).CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 10 Different advanced oxidation processes ( a ): reaction during Fenton and hydrogen peroxide-based oxidation ( b ) and the color removal with different time spans of the reactions with Fenton oxidation ( c ) (reprinted [254] with the permission of Springer Publications). Figure 10. Different advanced oxidation processes ( a ) reaction during Fenton and hydrogen peroxidebased oxidation ( b ) and the color removal with different time spans of the reactions with Fenton oxidation ( c ) (reprinted [254] with the permission of Springer Publications).
Figure 10 Different advanced oxidation processes ( a ): reaction during Fenton and hydrogen peroxide-based oxidation ( b ) and the color removal with different time spans of the reactions with Fenton oxidation ( c ) (reprinted [254] with the permission of Springer Publications). Figure 10. Different advanced oxidation processes ( a ) reaction during Fenton and hydrogen peroxidebased oxidation ( b ) and the color removal with different time spans of the reactions with Fenton oxidation ( c ) (reprinted [254] with the permission of Springer Publications).CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 11 Treatment of dyes using hybrid technologies. Figure 11. Treatment of dyes using hybrid technologies.
Figure 11 Treatment of dyes using hybrid technologies. Figure 11. Treatment of dyes using hybrid technologies.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 12 Schematic illustration of semiconductor heterojunction ( a ) before contact; ( b ) after contact; and ( c ) hybrid Z-scheme of photogenerated charge carriers (reprinted from [291]). Figure 12. Schematic illustration of semiconductor heterojunction ( a ) before contact; ( b ) after contact; and ( c ) hybrid Z-scheme of photogenerated charge carriers (reprinted from [291]).
Figure 12 Schematic illustration of semiconductor heterojunction ( a ) before contact; ( b ) after contact; and ( c ) hybrid Z-scheme of photogenerated charge carriers (reprinted from [291]). Figure 12. Schematic illustration of semiconductor heterojunction ( a ) before contact; ( b ) after contact; and ( c ) hybrid Z-scheme of photogenerated charge carriers (reprinted from [291]).CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 13 The sequence process for energy conversion from the sludge. Figure 13. The sequence process for energy conversion from the sludge.
Figure 13 The sequence process for energy conversion from the sludge. Figure 13. The sequence process for energy conversion from the sludge.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 14 Benefits of the ZLD concept. Figure 14. Benefits of the ZLD concept.
Figure 14 Benefits of the ZLD concept. Figure 14. Benefits of the ZLD concept.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 15 Life cycle assessment (LCA) framework for the wastewater treatment plants.
Figure 15 Life cycle assessment (LCA) framework for the wastewater treatment plants.CC-BY · From the PDF

Verification

Claims the paper makes

81 No full text of the sources · 26 Partly supported · 19 Not checked yet · 14 Own interpretation · 11 Supported · 10 No basis given · 7 Couldn’t confirm · 4 Supported so far · 4 Sources not found · 3 Not supported · 1 Own result · accuracy not yet measured

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Show all 108 claims

  • It may state two separate claims as one. 45
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 45
72 of 72

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The primary constituents of plant leaves encompass cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, and lignin, and additionally it contains many functional groups, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino, and nitro, which can interact with the functional groups of the dyes.

    “The primary constituents of plant leaves encompass cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, and lignin, and additionally it contains many functional groups, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino, and nitro, which can interact with the functional groups of the dyes Table 2.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Certain microorganisms can degrade auxochromes and chromophores found in dyes, hence facilitating the removal of organic materials from textile waste.

    “Although it is true that certain microorganisms can degrade auxochromes and chromophores found in dyes, hence facilitating the removal of organic materials from textile waste, it is worth noting that some of these microorganisms are also capable of mineralizing colors into carbon dioxide and water (see Figure 6).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Some microorganisms are capable of mineralizing colors into carbon dioxide and water.

    “Although it is true that certain microorganisms can degrade auxochromes and chromophores found in dyes, hence facilitating the removal of organic materials from textile waste, it is worth noting that some of these microorganisms are also capable of mineralizing colors into carbon dioxide and water (see Figure 6).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are still obstacles in the pursuit of efficient approaches to address pollution from complex waste effluents containing organic molecules and heavy metal ions, among other substances.

    “Despite the development of several wastewater treatment systems, there are still obstacles in the pursuit of efficient approaches to address pollution from complex waste effluents containing organic molecules and heavy metal ions, among other substances.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Certain locations in developing nations continue to dispose of sludge inappropriately, such as through land disposal or by releasing it into the sea.

    “However, it is worth noting that certain locations within developing nations continue to dispose of sludge in inappropriate and environmentally unfriendly ways, such as through land disposal or by releasing it into the sea.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Reusing and recycling wastewater can mitigate demand for freshwater and facilitate reduction in waste and surplus resources.

    “The practice of reusing and recycling wastewater has the potential to not only mitigate the demand for freshwater resources, but also facilitate the reduction in waste and surplus resources.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In some cases, the concentration of electrolytes employed in dyeing might reach approximately 90 g/L, leading to substantial increases in the amounts of TDS and chlorides.

    “In some cases, the concentration of electrolytes employed might reach approximately 90 g/L, leading to substantial increases in the amounts of TDS and chlorides.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Thermal evaporation treatment is the sole feasible alternative for treating electrolyte-containing reactive dye effluent.

    “In the given circumstances, empirical evidence has demonstrated that thermal evaporation treatment is the sole feasible alternative.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Thermal evaporation is a very efficient technique for removing salt and dissolved solids from concentrated textile effluent and for extracting water.

    “Thermal evaporation is widely acknowledged as a very efficient technique employed in the wastewater treatment for the textile industry to removing salt and dissolved solids from concentrated effluent, as well as extraction of water.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The recovery of NaOH is crucial when employing a high concentration of alkali.

    “The recovery of NaOH is crucial when employing a high concentration of alkali.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Membrane systems are very suitable for the treatment of effluents and the subsequent recovery of NaOH during the initial phases of fiber removal.

    “Membrane systems are considered very suitable for the treatment of effluents and the subsequent recovery of NaOH during the initial phases of fiber removal.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Polymeric NF membranes allow for the passage of small molecules and ions without the need for mercerization.

    “Polymeric NF membranes allow for the passage of small molecules and ions without the need for mercerization.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The discharge of effluent originating from the textile sector is resulting in substantial contamination due to the extensive use of colorants and hazardous chemicals, which are the primary contributors to water pollution and the escalating ecological risks.

    “The discharge of effluent originating from the textile sector is resulting in substantial contamination due to the extensive use of colorants and hazardous chemicals, which are the primary contributors to water pollution and the escalating ecological risks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The textile industry generates effluents containing significant quantities of hazardous and persistent compounds, including dyes, chemicals, aromatic compounds, formaldehyde, flame retardants, and fluorocarbons.

    “The textile industry is responsible for generating effluents that contain significant quantities of hazardous and persistent compounds, including dyes, chemicals, aromatic compounds, formaldehyde, flame retardants, and fluorocarbons.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    These substances have detrimental impacts on both the environment and human health, as well as on aquatic organisms.

    “These substances have detrimental impacts on both the environment and human health, as well as on aquatic organisms.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Water recovery from textile effluent is easier than recovery of salt or residues.

    “The textile industry uses effluent treatment to separate water and other substances, with water recovery being easier than salt or residues.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Highly polluting effluents, such as dye bath discharge, make up 10% of total effluent discharge, while 90% comes from low-polluting streams like wash water.

    “Highly polluting effluents, such as dye bath discharge, make up 10% of total effluent discharge, while 90% comes from lowpolluting streams like wash water.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sustainable wastewater treatment produces less sludge but does not comply with norms and standards.

    “Sustainable wastewater treatment produces less sludge, but it does not comply with norms and standards.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prevention is more effective than treatment.

    “In this situation, the idea of prevention being more effective than treatments remains valid.”
19 of 19

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2 of 2

Citations

Cites

Research works printed but not linked: 22

  1. Mohamed, 2017, Hassaan; Ahmed El Nemr Health and Environmental Impacts of Dyes: Mini Review, Am. J. Environ. Sci. Eng., 1, 64
  2. Karunakaran, G., Periyasamy, A.P., and Militký, J. (2023). Fibrous Structures and Their Impact on Textile Design, Springer Nature.
  3. Chisvert, A., Miralles, P., and Salvador, A. (2018). Analysis of Cosmetic Products, Elsevier.
  4. Singh, 2017, Rajani Srivastava an Overview of Textile Dyes and Their Removaltechniques: Indian Perspective, Polution Res. Pap., 36, 790
  5. Sachidhanandham, A., and Periyasamy, A.P. (2021). Handbook of Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for Energy and Environmental Applications, Springer International Publishing.
  6. Samarghandi, 2009, Hadi Wo-Parameter Isotherms of Methyl Orange Sorption by Pinecone Derived Activated Carbon, Iran. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng., 6, 285
  7. Periyasamy, A.P., and Militky, J. (2020). Sustainability in the Textile and Apparel Industries, Springer Nature.
  8. Periyasamy, A.P., Ramamoorthy, S.K., Rwawiire, S., and Zhao, Y. (2018). Sustainable Innovations in Apparel Production, Springer.
  9. Periyasamy, A.P., and Militky, J. (2017). Sustainability in Denim, Elsevier.
  10. Khaleque, 2016, Removing Reactive Dyes from Textile Effluent Using Banana Fibre, Int. J. Basic Appl. Sci., 16, 14
  11. Hachoumi, 2017, Adsorption Studies with a New Biosorbent Ensis Siliqua Shell Powder for Removal Two Textile Dyes from Aqueous Solution, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 8, 1448
  12. Auta, 2012, Batch Adsorption of Reactive Red 120 from Waste Waters Using Activated Carbon from Waste Tea, Int. J. Adv. Eng. Technol., III, 24
  13. Mustafa, G., Zahid, M.T., Ullah, F., Zia, I., Younas, A., Batool, T., and Zahid, I. (2023). Current Developments in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Elsevier.
  14. Kumar, P.S., and Yaashikaa, P.R. (2018). Sustainable Innovations in Apparel Production, Springer.
  15. Bethi, B., Radhika, G.B., and Sonawane, S.H. (2022). Novel Approaches Towards Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery Technologies, Elsevier.
  16. Venkataraman, K. (1974). The Chemistry of Synthetic Dyes, Academic Press.
  17. Jang, Y. (2007). Technical Proceedings of the 2007 Cleantech Conference and Trade Show, CRC Press.
  18. Muthu, S.S. (2017). Sustainability in Denim, Elsevier.
  19. Periyasamy, A.P., Wiener, J., and Militky, J. (2017). Sustainability in Denim, Elsevier.
  20. Martínez, L.M.T., Kharissova, O.V., and Kharisov, B.I. (2018). Handbook of Ecomaterials, Springer International Publishing. · DOI · Paper page
  21. Periyasamy, 2019, Life Cycle Assessment of Denim: A Review, Colourage, 66, 54
  22. Periyasamy, A.P., and Militky, J. (2020). Sustainability in the Textile and Apparel Industries, Springer.

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Metadata

Authors
Periyasamy, A. P.
Affiliations
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland (FI)
Corresponding author
Periyasamy, Aravin Prince
ORCID
Periyasamy, Aravin Prince
Venue
Sustainability
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-01-05
Volume
16
Issue
2
Pages
495
ISSN
2071-1050 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/su16020495
OpenAlex
W4390617246
Semantic Scholar
05dce24433317aa9363013319932eb6e9a860799
Cited by
652
References
323
Citations by year
2026: 296 · 2025: 271 · 2024: 84
FWCI
73.51
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Sustainability (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removal
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Advanced oxidation water treatment
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
Keywords
textile wastewater, dye removal, textile dyes, human health effects, aquatic toxicity, sustainable wastewater treatment, biosorbent, biological treatment, membrane technology, ion exchange, advanced oxidation processes, techno-economic analysis, life cycle assessment

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