When White Men Can't Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 9,020

A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance

Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770

The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self

Steele, C. M. (1988) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60229-4 · Cited by 3,697

The Social Psychology of Stigma

Major, B., & O'Brien, L. T. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137 · Cited by 3,114

Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat

Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(02)80009-0 · Cited by 2,201

`How many cases do I need?': On science and the logic of case selection in field-based research

Small, M. L. (2009) · Ethnography · doi:10.1177/1466138108099586 · Cited by 2,023

Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1491 · Cited by 1,889

An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance

Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336 · Cited by 1,576

Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not

Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2016) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005 · Cited by 1,177

Improving adolescents' standardized test performance: An intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat

Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2003.09.002 · Cited by 1,096

The perception-behavior expressway: automatic effects of social perception on social behavior.

Dijksterhuis, A., & Bargh, J. A. (2001) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(01)80003-4 · Cited by 1,052

Signaling Threat: How Situational Cues Affect Women in Math, Science, and Engineering Settings

Murphy, M. C., Steele, C. M., & Gross, J. J. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01995.x · Cited by 1,048

Mind matters: cognitive and physical effects of aging self-stereotypes

Levy, B. R. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology: Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.4.p203 · Cited by 908

Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence.

Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012702 · Cited by 913

A threatening intellectual environment: why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males

Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00272 · Cited by 835

Mathematics anxiety: what have we learned in 60 years?

Dowker, A., Sarkar, A., & Looi, C. Y. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00508 · Cited by 811

Clearing the air: identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women's leadership aspirations

Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., & Steele, C. M. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.276 · Cited by 713

Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance

Stone, J., Lynch, C. I., Sjomeling, M., & Darley, J. M. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1213 · Cited by 712

Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance

Schmader, T. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1500 · Cited by 711

Consuming images: how television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally

Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M., & Gerhardstein, R. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/014616702237644 · Cited by 680

Stereotype threat and working memory: mechanisms, alleviation, and spillover

Beilock, S. L., Rydell, R. J., & McConnell, A. R. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.2.256 · Cited by 587

The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance

Hess, T. M., Auman, C., Colcombe, S. J., & Rahhal, T. A. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.1.p3 · Cited by 578

The role of stereotype threats in undermining girls' and women's performance and interest in STEM fields

Shapiro, J. R., & Williams, A. M. (2012) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0051-0 · Cited by 501

Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self‐affirmation on women's intellectual performance

Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., & Schimel, J. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.010 · Cited by 460

When Positive Stereotypes Threaten Intellectual Performance: The Psychological Hazards of “Model Minority” Status

Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00277 · Cited by 436

From Stereotype Threat to Stereotype Threats: Implications of a Multi-Threat Framework for Causes, Moderators, Mediators, Consequences, and Interventions

Shapiro, J. R., & Neuberg, S. L. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868306294790 · Cited by 398

Deflecting the trajectory and changing the narrative: How self-affirmation affects academic performance and motivation under identity threat.

Sherman, D. K., Hartson, K. A., Binning, K. R., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., Taborsky-Barba, S., Tomassetti, S., Nussbaum, A. D., & Cohen, G. L. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031495 · Cited by 371

Closing the social class achievement gap for first-generation students in undergraduate biology.

Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Tibbetts, Y., Giffen, C. J., Blair, S. S., Rouse, D. I., & Hyde, J. S. (2014) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034679 · Cited by 360

Stigma on my mind: individual differences in the experience of stereotype threat

Brown, R. P., & Pinel, E. C. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(03)00039-8 · Cited by 354

Emotional Design in Digital Media for Learning

Plass, J. L., & Kaplan, U. (2016) · Emotions, Technology, Design, and Learning · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801856-9.00007-4 · Cited by 377

Identity bifurcation in response to stereotype threat: women and mathematics

Pronin, E., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(03)00088-x · Cited by 335

Considering the Impact of Racial Stigmas and Science Identity: Persistence among Biomedical and Behavioral Science Aspirants

Chang, M. J., Eagan, M. K., Lin, M. H., & Hurtado, S. (2011) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1353/jhe.2011.0030 · Cited by 330

Twenty Years of Stereotype Threat Research: A Review of Psychological Mediators

Pennington, C. R., Heim, D., Levy, A. R., & Larkin, D. T. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146487 · Cited by 324

Alleviating women's mathematics stereotype threat through salience of group achievements

McIntyre, R. B., Paulson, R. M., & Lord, C. G. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(02)00513-9 · Cited by 318

Reversing the gender gap in negotiations: an exploration of stereotype regeneration

Kray, L. J., Galinsky, A. D., & Thompson, L. (2002) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.2001.2979 · Cited by 296

The influence of proactive personality and stereotype threat on women's entrepreneurial intentions

Gupta, V. K., & Bhawe, N. M. (2007) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/10717919070130040901 · Cited by 285

Leaderboards in a virtual classroom: A test of stereotype threat and social comparison explanations for women's math performance

Christy, K. R., & Fox, J. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.05.005 · Cited by 276

On Interpreting Stereotype Threat as Accounting for African American-White Differences on Cognitive Tests.

Sackett, P. R., Hardison, C. M., & Cullen, M. J. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.7 · Cited by 252

Test scores, subjective assessment, and stereotyping of ethnic minorities

Burgess, S., & Greaves, E. (2013) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/669340 · Cited by 249

Stereotype threat: the effect of expectancy on performance

Cadinu, M., Maass, A., Frigerio, S., Impagliazzo, L., & Latinotti, S. (2003) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.145 · Cited by 245

Stereotype Threat: Are Lower Status and History of Stigmatization Preconditions of Stereotype Threat?

Leyens, J.-P., Désert, M., Croizet, J.-C., & Darcis, C. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200262002 · Cited by 243

“Diagnosis Threat”: The Effect of Negative Expectations on Cognitive Performance in Head Injury

Suhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2002) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/jcen.24.4.448.1039 · Cited by 229

Affirmed yet unaware: Exploring the role of awareness in the process of self-affirmation.

Sherman, D. K., Cohen, G. L., Nelson, L. D., Nussbaum, A. D., Bunyan, D. P., & Garcia, J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015451 · Cited by 223

A customized belonging intervention improves retention of socially disadvantaged students at a broad-access university

Murphy, M. C., Gopalan, M., Carter, E. R., Emerson, K. T. U., Bottoms, B. L., & Walton, G. M. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba4677 · Cited by 214

Stereotype threat in organizations: implications for equity and performance

Walton, G. M., Murphy, M. C., & Ryan, A. M. (2015) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111322 · Cited by 184

The stigma of affirmative action: : A stereotyping- based theory and meta-analytic test of the consequences for performance.

Leslie, L. M., Mayer, D. M., & Kravitz, D. A. (2014) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2011.0940 · Cited by 183

Stereotype reactance at the bargaining table: the effect of stereotype activation and power on claiming and creating value

Kray, L. J., Reb, J., Galinsky, A. D., & Thompson, L. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203261884 · Cited by 183

The social construction of race: biracial identity and vulnerability to stereotypes

Shih, M., Bonam, C., Sanchez, D., & Peck, C. (2007) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.2.125 · Cited by 171

Minding and mending the gap: Social psychological interventions to reduce educational disparities

Spitzer, B., & Aronson, J. (2015) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12067 · Cited by 152

Stereotype threat and women's performance in engineering

BELL, A. E., SPENCER, S. J., ISERMAN, E., & LOGEL, C. E. R. (2003) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/j.2168-9830.2003.tb00774.x · Cited by 149

Leadership efficacy and women leaders' responses to stereotype activation

Hoyt, C. L., & Blascovich, J. (2007) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207084718 · Cited by 143

Stereotype threat in men on a test of social sensitivity

Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. (2005) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-005-3714-x · Cited by 141

Beyond Performance: A Motivational Experiences Model of Stereotype Threat

Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., Brown, E. R., Chase, J., & Lee, J. Y. K. (2013) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9219-1 · Cited by 141

Enriching gender in physics education research: A binary past and a complex future

Traxler, A. L., Cid, X. C., Blue, J., & Barthelemy, R. (2016) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.12.020114 · Cited by 172

Disabling the able: stereotype threat and women's work performance

Bergeron, D. M., Block, C. J., & Echtenkamp, A. (2006) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1902_3 · Cited by 137

Intergroup Relations

Yzerbyt, V., & Demoulin, S. (2010) · Handbook of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002028 · Cited by 133

Retraining attitudes and stereotypes to affect motivation and cognitive capacity under stereotype threat.

Forbes, C. E., & Schmader, T. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020971 · Cited by 132

Harnessing Values to Promote Motivation in Education

Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. S. (2014) · Motivational Interventions · doi:10.1108/s0749-742320140000018002 · Cited by 131

Stereotype Threat and Group Differences in Test Performance: A Question of Measurement Invariance.

Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & Hessen, D. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.696 · Cited by 126

The psychology of the affirmed learner: Spontaneous self-affirmation in the face of stress.

Brady, S. T., Reeves, S. L., Garcia, J., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Cook, J. E., Taborsky-Barba, S., Tomasetti, S., Davis, E. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000091 · Cited by 120

Are all interventions created equal? A multi-threat approach to tailoring stereotype threat interventions.

Shapiro, J. R., Williams, A. M., & Hambarchyan, M. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030461 · Cited by 119

A Metacognitive Perspective on the Cognitive Deficits Experienced in Intellectually Threatening Environments

Schmader, T., Forbes, C. E., Zhang, S., & Berry Mendes, W. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208330450 · Cited by 117

Stereotype threat effects in settings with features likely versus unlikely in operational test settings: A meta-analysis.

Shewach, O. R., Sackett, P. R., & Quint, S. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000420 · Cited by 97

Stereotype threat and inflexible perseverance in problem solving

Carr, P. B., & Steele, C. M. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.003 · Cited by 96

Stereotype Threat Among Women in Finance: Negative Effects on Identity, Workplace Well-Being, and Recruiting

von Hippel, C., Sekaquaptewa, D., & McFarlane, M. (2015) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684315574501 · Cited by 85

Stereotype threat: the moderating role of locus of control beliefs

Cadinu, M., Maass, A., Lombardo, M., & Frigerio, S. (2006) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.303 · Cited by 74

The Neuroscience of Stigma and Stereotype Threat

Derks, B., Inzlicht, M., & Kang, S. (2008) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207088036 · Cited by 74

Confidence enhanced performance? – The causal effects of success on future performance in professional golf tournaments

Rosenqvist, O., & Skans, O. N. (2015) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2015.06.020 · Cited by 66

Stereotype threat and the evaluative context of communication

McGlone, M. S., & Pfiester, R. A. (2015) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x14562609 · Cited by 45