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An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties.
Abstract
The development ofa 2 l-item self-report inventory for measuring the severity of anxiety in psychiat-ric populations i described. The initial item pool f86 items was drawn from three preexisting scales: the Anxiety Checklist, the Physician's Desk Reference Checklist, and the Situational Anxiety Checklist. A series of analyses was used to reduce the item pool. The resulting Beck Anxiety Inven-tory (BAI) is a 21-item scale that showed high internal consistency (a =.92) and test-retest reliability over 1 week, r(81) =.75. TheBAI discriminated anxious diagnostic groups (panic disorder, general-ized anxiety disorder, etc.) from nonanxious diagnostic groups (major depression, dysthymic disor-der, etc). In addition, the BAI was moderately correlated with the revised Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, r(150) =.51, and was only mildly correlated with the revised Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, r(l 53) =.25. Studies addressing the distinctiveness ofanxiety and depres-sion depend on the availability of reliable and valid assessment instruments. However, a number of studies have reported high correlations (r>.50) between the widely used rating scales of anxiety and depression (e.g., Dobson, 1985; Mendels,
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In the citing paper
“Additional psychosocial measures consisted of the Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988), the Penn Alcohol/Drug Craving Scale (Flannery, Volpecelli, & Pettinati, 1999) and the PTSD Symptom Checklist (Blanchard, Jones-Alexander, Buckley, &Forneris, 1996).”
From Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention in a Jail Drug Treatment Program. (2019) · cites this paper as Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988
In the citing paper
“The BAI is a 21-item multiple-choice self-report inventory with good reliability, Cronbach's α = 0.92, and is considered to be an accurate measure of anxiety in adults over the age of 17 (Beck et al., 1988); it is recommended for use with survivors of domestic violence (Satyanarayana & Chandra, 2010).”
From A survey of mothers' experiences of shared parenting and domestic violence (2023) · cites this paper as Beck et al., 1988
In the citing paper
“The Beck Anxiety Inventory, a 21-item multiple-choice self-report inventory, has been identified as having good internal reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha of .92, and is considered to be an accurate measure of anxiety in adults over the age of 17 ( Beck et al., 1988 ).”
From Challenges in Shared Parenting Among Racial Minority Women Survivors of Domestic Violence With Young Children (2025) · cites this paper as Beck et al., 1988
In the citing paper
“This scale has shown high internal consistency (α = 0.92) and test-retest reliability over one week, r(81) = 0.75, and was developed to avoid confounding with depression (Beck et al., 1988).”
From Cannabis Use and Academic Performance in College Students: The Role of Procrastination (2024) · cites this paper as Beck et al., 1988
In the citing paper
“The BAI has high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha , .90),adequate test-retest reliability (rs ..60), and moderate to high convergent and discriminant validity.”
From A preliminary investigation of acceptance and commitment therapy as a treatment for Marijuana dependence in adults (2007) · cites this paper as Beck et al., 1988
In the citing paper
“and has demonstrated strong reliability and validity [98, 99].”
From Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Mindfulness in Individual Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Depression and Anxiety Disorders (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
In the citing paper
“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.91 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“The questionnaire has been validated and shown to have high internal consistency. 31”
From Internet-based treatment for provoked vulvodynia: Factors associated with treatment outcomes (2025) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) is a scale that measures anxiety using a list of 21 anxiety symptoms and has high reliability and good validity (Beck et al., 1988; Muntingh et al., 2011).”
From Internet-based treatment for vulvodynia (EMBLA) – Study protocol for a randomised controlled study (2021) · cites this paper as Beck et al., 1988
In the citing paper
“Για την ποσοτική αξιολόγηση της τρέχουσας καταθλιπτικής και αγχώδους συμπτωματολογίας, καθώς και της προβληματικής κατανάλωσης αλκοόλ, χρησιμοποιήθηκαν, αντίστοιχα, οι κλίμακες Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9 27,28 ), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI 29,30 ) και CAGE. 31,32”
From Clinical presentation and requests for support of people with HIV/AIDS seeking counselling and psychotherapy in Greece (2019) · cites this paper as [29]
In the citing paper
“This instrument was developed to measure symptoms of anxiety that are largely independent from symptoms of depression. This means that the questionnaire mainly evaluates somatic aspects of anxiety rather than general stress‐related anxiety symptoms,17 and a higher score reflects an increased level of anxiety.”
From Cognitive behavioral therapy for frequent attenders in primary care (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“It revealed an internal consistency of α = 0.90, a split-half reliability of r = 0.70, a retest reliability of r = 0.75, and convergent validities of 0.50 ≤ r ≤ 0.61.”
From The process-outcome mindfulness effects in trainees (PrOMET) study: Protocol of a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (2015) · cites this paper as Beck et al. 1988
In the citing paper
“The BAI is reported to have high internal consistency and its one-week test-retest reliability is satisfactory.”
From Dbt-enhanced cognitive-behavioral treatment for trichotillomania: A randomized controlled trial (2012) · cites this paper as Beck, Epstein, Brown & Steer, 1988
In the citing paper
“Anxiety alone was measured in 10 studies, for example, the Generalised Anxiety Disorder Assessment 131 in five studies and the Beck Anxiety Inventory 132 in two.”
From A scoping review to identify process and outcome measures used in acceptance and commitment therapy research, with adults with acquired neurological conditions. (2023) · cites this paper as [132]
In the citing paper
“High scores on the BAI reflect high level of anxiety symptoms reported by the individual and a reduction in score corresponds with reported improvement in anxiety symptoms.”
From The Effectiveness of an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Self-help Intervention for Chronic Pain. (2010) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“The BAI has high internal consistency, α = .92, and good test-rest reliability, r = .81, at one week in clinical samples (Beck et al., 1988).”
From Behavioral Experiments for Intolerance of Uncertainty: A Randomized Clinical Trial for Adults With Generalized Anxiety Disorder (2022) · cites this paper as Beck et al., 1988
In the citing paper
“Anxiety was also evaluated with the Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD- 7) scale [54] and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) [55].”
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Romijn, G., Batelaan, N., Kok, R., Koning, J., van Balkom, A., Titov, N., & Riper, H. (2019) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/11706 · Cited by 52
Decision-making impairment in obsessive-compulsive disorder as measured by the Iowa Gambling Task
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Kanuri, N., Cassell, B., Bruce, S. E., White, K. S., Gott, B. M., Gyawali, C. P., & Sayuk, G. S. (2016) · Neurogastroenterology & Motility · doi:10.1111/nmo.12848 · Cited by 59
Fear of cancer recurrence and death anxiety: unaddressed concerns for adult neuro-oncology patients
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Psychological Interventions for People with Huntington’s Disease: A Call to Arms
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Dysfunctional beliefs about symptoms and illness in patients with hypochondriasis
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Andersson, G., Waara, J., Jonsson, U., Malmaeus, F., Carlbring, P., & Öst, L.-G. (2013) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2013.844202 · Cited by 59
Transdiagnostic group CBT for anxiety disorders: the unified protocol in mental health services
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Migraine diagnosis: Screening items, instruments, and scales
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Wedin, S., Madan, A., Correll, J., Crowley, N., Malcolm, R., Karl Byrne, T., & Borckardt, J. J. (2014) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.08.019 · Cited by 58
Dugas, M. J., Sexton, K. A., Hebert, E. A., Bouchard, S., Gouin, J.-P., & Shafran, R. (2022) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2022.05.003 · Cited by 58
Larsen, S. E., Bellmore, A., Gobin, R. L., Holens, P., Lawrence, K. A., & Pacella-LaBarbara, M. L. (2019) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.01.008 · Cited by 57
Metacognitive therapy in treatment-resistant psychosis: a multiple-baseline study.
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“The PSYRATS, BDI-2, BAI and CAS-1 were completed during every assessment and treatment session.”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychological treatments versus treatment as usual for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
Gava, I., Barbui, C., Aguglia, E., Carlino, D., Churchill, R., De Vanna, M., & McGuire, H. (2007) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd005333.pub2 · Cited by 151
Manos, R. C., Cahill, S. P., Wetterneck, C. T., Conelea, C. A., Ross, A. R., & Riemann, B. C. (2010) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.05.001 · Cited by 55
Komulainen, E., Heikkilä, R., Nummenmaa, L., Raij, T. T., Harmer, C. J., Isometsä, E., & Ekelund, J. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.04.096 · Cited by 56
“Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI (Beck et al., 1988)), and Perceived So-”
BackgroundFive-year outcome of major depressive disorder in primary health care
Riihimäki, K. A., Vuorilehto, M. S., Melartin, T. K., & Isometsä, E. T. (2014) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291711002303 · Cited by 56
Riccardi, C. J., Korte, K. J., & Schmidt, N. B. (2017) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.06.003 · Cited by 55
Mander, J., Blanck, P., Neubauer, A. B., Kröger, P., Flückiger, C., Lutz, W., Barnow, S., Bents, H., & Heidenreich, T. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22695 · Cited by 56
“It consists of 21 items that revealed an internal consistency of α = 0.90 (current sample: 0.90 ≤ α ≤ 0.92), a split‐half reliability of r = 0.70, a retest reliability of r = 0.75, and convergent validities of 0.50 ≤ r ≤ 0.61 (Beck et al., 1988; Margraf & Ehlers, 2007).”
MethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A.
- Venue
- Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
- Published
- 1988
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 893-897
- ISSN
- 0022-006X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2117
- OpenAlex
- W4238079920
- Semantic Scholar
- 1a3e334f16b6888843a8150ddf7e4f46b2b28fd5
- Cited by
- 14,407
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 667 · 2025: 781 · 2024: 834 · 2023: 911 · 2022: 940 · 2021: 982 · 2020: 957 · 2019: 707 · 2018: 688 · 2017: 653 · 2016: 690 · 2015: 602 · 2014: 604 · 2013: 569 · 2012: 504
- FWCI
- 16.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-38843)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- clinical anxiety, anxiety assessment, psychometric properties, inventory development
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics
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