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Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach.
Abstract
To facilitate a multidimensional approach to empathy the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) includes 4 subscales: Perspective-Taking (PT) Fantasy (FS) Empathic Concern (EC) and Personal Distress (PD). The aim of the present study was to establish the convergent and discriminant validity of these 4 subscales. Hypothesized relationships among the IRI subscales between the subscales and measures of other psychological constructs (social functioning self-esteem emotionality and sensitivity to others) and between the subscales and extant empathy measures were examined. Study subjects included 677 male and 667 female students enrolled in undergraduate psychology classes at the University of Texas. The IRI scales not only exhibited the predicted relationships among themselves but also were related in the expected manner to other measures. Higher PT scores were consistently associated with better social functioning and higher self-esteem; in contrast Fantasy scores were unrelated to these 2 characteristics. High EC scores were positively associated with shyness and anxiety but negatively linked to egotism. The most substantial relationships in the study involved the PD scale. PD scores were strongly linked with low self-esteem and poor interpersonal functioning as well as a constellation of vulnerability uncertainty and fearfulness. These findings support a multidimensional approach to empathy by providing evidence that the 4 qualities tapped by the IRI are indeed separate construc…
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In the citing paper
“Perspective-taking, considered one of the components of empathy (93), was shown to enhance autonomic attunement in couples during conflict discussions.”
From Physiological attunement and flourishing: understanding the influence of relationships on health (2025) · cites this paper as [93]
In the citing paper
“Another interesting result is that dispositional mindfulness (assessed by MAAS) was significantly related to perspective-taking, which has shown to be related to empathetic response and may be an important mechanism in specific meditation practices, together with meta-awareness, cognitive reappraisal, and self-inquiry (Davis, 1983; Batson et al., 2009; Dahl et al., 2015).”
From Exploring the role of meditation and dispositional mindfulness on social cognition domains: A controlled study (2019) · cites this paper as Davis, 1983
In the citing paper
“In fact, Davis (1983) asserted that associations between the fantasy subscale and interpersonal functioning were not expected because one's ability to get involved in fictional scenarios from books or movies was not relevant to social relationships, but rather may reflect aspects of emotionality.”
From Empathy in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (2017) · cites this paper as Davis, 1983
In the citing paper
“The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (see Davis 1983, for reliability and construct validity data) comprises four seven-item, self-report sub-scales which tap four different aspects of empathy.”
From Measuring Theory of Mind in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (2017) · cites this paper as Davis 1983
In the citing paper
“On the perspective taking, empathic concern and personal distress sub-scales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, the ASD sample performed worse6: that is, they were less likely to report taking the psychological perspective of others and expressing concern for others in difficulty, and more likely to report being distressed over problematic interactions with others, t (235–241) = 2.67–6.94, p <”
From Measuring Theory of Mind in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (2017) · cites this paper as Davis 1983
In the citing paper
“Second, the expected group differences emerged on the empathy and social anxiety scales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index and the mini-SPIN, yet these measures were uncorrelated with the A-ToM social scale.”
From Measuring Theory of Mind in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (2017) · cites this paper as Davis 1983
In the citing paper
“Empathy is a multidimensional construct [e.g., (32)]—constituting cognitive and affective components.”
From Empathy at the heart of darkness: empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“Renier's et al. (40) and Davis' (32) perspective taking scales present us with a jingle issue”
From Empathy at the heart of darkness: empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
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“Both are required for normal “empathic ability” (Davis, 1983; Duan and Hill, 1996; Cialdini et al., 1997) and are shown to be related (Thakkar et al., 2009; Mohr et al., 2010; Thakkar and Park, 2010; Gronholm et al., 2012) and modulated by individual difference variables and personal experiences…”
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“The third category is the scale that measures emotional and cognitive empathy, including interpersonal relation index (IRI) [17] and the basic empathy scale (BES) [18].”
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Meditation Effects in the Social Domain: Self-Other Connectedness as a General Mechanism?
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Personality Neuroscience and the Five Factor Model
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Metadata
- Authors
- Davis, M. H.
- Affiliations
- Indiana University Bloomington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Davis, Mark H.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1983-01
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 113-126
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1980083892
- Cited by
- 10,272
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 571 · 2025: 604 · 2024: 631 · 2023: 614 · 2022: 732 · 2021: 702 · 2020: 727 · 2019: 650 · 2018: 605 · 2017: 578 · 2016: 559 · 2015: 459 · 2014: 428 · 2013: 396 · 2012: 362
- FWCI
- 16.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR-16-CE28-0004)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Empathy and Medical Education
- Keywords
- empathy, Interpersonal Reactivity Index, perspective taking, fantasy, empathic concern, personal distress, convergent validity, discriminant validity, self-esteem, social functioning, shyness, anxiety, egotism, individual differences
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