Towards Practical, High-Capacity, Low-Maintenance Information Storage in Synthesized DNA
Open accessAbstract
Digital production, transmission and storage have revolutionized how we access and use information but have also made archiving an increasingly complex task that requires active, continuing maintenance of digital media. This challenge has focused some interest on DNA as an attractive target for information storage because of its capacity for high-density information encoding, longevity under easily achieved conditions and proven track record as an information bearer. Previous DNA-based information storage approaches have encoded only trivial amounts of information or were not amenable to scaling-up, and used no robust error-correction and lacked examination of their cost-efficiency for large-scale information archival. Here we describe a scalable method that can reliably store more information than has been handled before. We encoded computer files totalling 739 kilobytes of hard-disk storage and with an estimated Shannon information of 5.2 × 10(6) bits into a DNA code, synthesized this DNA, sequenced it and reconstructed the original files with 100% accuracy. Theoretical analysis indicates that our DNA-based storage scheme could be scaled far beyond current global information volumes and offers a realistic technology for large-scale, long-term and infrequently accessed digital archiving. In fact, current trends in technological advances are reducing DNA synthesis costs at a pace that should make our scheme cost-effective for sub-50-year archiving within a decade.
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Goldman et al. (2013) encoded all 154 of Shakespeare's sonnets, a scientific article, a medium-resolution color photograph of the European Bioinformatics Institute, and a 26 s excerpt from Martin Luther King's speech using the Huffman algorithm.
“The authors encoded all 154 of Shakespeare’s sonnets, a scientific article, a medium-resolution color photograph of the European Bioinformatics Institute, and a 26 s long excerpt from Martin Luther King’s 1963 “I have a dream” speech using the Huffman algorithm to covert numeric data into a nucleotide sequence [16].”
From DNA Data Storage. (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
A base-3 Huffman code system developed by researchers at the European Bioinformatics Institute significantly increased the scale, density, and reliability of data storage in DNA.
“researchers of European Bioinformatics Institute developed a base-3 Huffman code system that significantly increased the scale, density, and reliability of data storage in DNA (Goldman et al., 2013).”
From Large-Scale de Novo Oligonucleotide Synthesis for Whole-Genome Synthesis and Data Storage: Challenges and Opportunities (2021) · cites this paper as Goldman et al., 2013
Goldman et al.'s coding scheme was ill-suited for the used DNA channel because it had a low effective information rate and did not recover the whole message.
“This coding scheme, however, was ill-suited for the used DNA channel because it had a low effective information rate, i.e., number of information bits per total number of encoded bits, and did not recover the whole message.”
From Emerging Approaches to DNA Data Storage: Challenges and Prospects (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
Goldman et al. used an error-correction code where each part of the information was written on four subsequent DNA sequences, so loss of sequences could be corrected if fewer than four subsequent sequences were lost.
“A simple example of an error-correction code was used by Goldman et al.,9 where each part of the information was written on four subsequent DNA sequences. Thus, the loss of sequences could be corrected if fewer than four subsequent sequences were lost.”
From Emerging Approaches to DNA Data Storage: Challenges and Prospects (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
Demonstrations of DNA storage viability include the storage and retrieval of books, images, computer programs, audio clips, works of art, and Shakespeare's sonnets using a variety of encoding schemes, with data size limited primarily by the cost of DNA synthesis.
“Demonstrations of its viability as a general information storage medium include the storage and retrieval of books, images, computer programs, audio clips, works of art, and Shakespeare’s sonnets using a variety of encoding schemes6–12, with data size limited primarily by the cost of DNA synthesis.”
From Random access DNA memory using Boolean search in an archival file storage system (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
Because encapsulation of the DNA file sequence relies only on electrostatic interactions between positively-charged silica and the phosphate backbone of DNA, the approach can equally encapsulate any molecular weight of DNA molecule applicable to MB and larger file sizes, and is compatible with alternative DNA file compositions such as 100-200-mer oligonucleotides or multiple layers of encapsulated
“Because encapsulation of the DNA file sequence relies only on electrostatic interactions between positively-charged silica and the phosphate backbone of DNA, our approach can equally encapsulate any molecular weight of DNA molecule applicable to MB and larger file sizes, as demonstrated previously23, and is compatible with alternative DNA file compositions such as 100–200-mer oligonucleotides that”
From Random access DNA memory using Boolean search in an archival file storage system (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
DNA has emerged as an attractive alternative as conventional data storage media converge on their physical limits.
“As conventional data storage media steadily converge on their physical limits, DNA has emerged as an attractive alternative.[1][2][3][4][5]”
From Integrating DNA Encapsulates and Digital Microfluidics for Automated Data Storage in DNA (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
It is generally expected that the cost of DNA synthesis will decrease in the coming years making automated storage solutions necessary.
“However, it is generally expected [2,6] that the cost of DNA synthesis will decrease in the coming years making automated storage solutions necessary.”
From Integrating DNA Encapsulates and Digital Microfluidics for Automated Data Storage in DNA (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
In conjunction with anticipated lower-cost and rapid DNA synthesis technologies, this will present a viable alternative in terms of ecological, dense, and automated data storage.
“In conjunction with anticipated lower-cost and rapid DNA synthesis technologies, [2] this will present a viable alternative in terms of ecological, dense, and automated data storage.”
From Integrating DNA Encapsulates and Digital Microfluidics for Automated Data Storage in DNA (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
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“The authors encoded all 154 of Shakespeare’s One year later, Goldman et al. (2013) tried to overcome the sequencing errors occurring by encoding data with redundancy [16]. speech using the Huffman algorithm to covert numeric data into a nucleotide sequence [16].”
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Rebimbas, R., Glória, I., Chegão, J., Al-Rawi, M., Mousakhani Ganjeh, A., & Saraiva, J. A. (2026) · Journal of Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2026.03.003
- Authors
- Goldman, N., Bertone, P., Chen, S., Dessimoz, C., LeProust, E. M., Sipos, B., & Birney, E.
- Affiliations
- European Bioinformatics Institute (GB)
- Agilent Technologies (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Goldman, Nick
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2013-01-23
- Volume
- 494
- Issue
- 7435
- Pages
- 77-80
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC3672958
- OpenAlex
- W2162980030
- Cited by
- 1,220
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 101 · 2025: 151 · 2024: 125 · 2023: 132 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 115 · 2020: 101 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 45 · 2014: 29 · 2013: 23
- FWCI
- 23.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (088151)
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (136461)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › DNA and Biological Computing
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Advanced biosensing and bioanalysis techniques
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Algorithms and Data Compression
- Keywords
- DNA data storage, synthetic DNA, digital archiving, error correction, DNA synthesis, long-term data preservation, information density, cost-effectiveness, DNA sequencing, Shannon information
- MeSH terms
- Archives, Base Sequence, Computers, DNA, Molecular Sequence Data, Sequence Analysis, DNA, Information Management, Synthetic Biology
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