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Cited by 72Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorNeuropeptides and Animal PhysiologyNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior

Oxytocin and vasopressin: signalling, behavioural modulation and potential therapeutic effects

Open access
Rae, Mariana, Lemos Duarte, Mariana, Gomes, Ivone, Camarini, Rosana, Devi, Lakshmi A.·2022·British Journal of Pharmacology
DOI 10.1111/bph.15481PMC PMC8488062
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Abstract

Oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (AVP) are endogenous ligands for OT and AVP receptors in the brain and in the peripheral system. Several studies demonstrate that OT and AVP have opposite roles in modulating stress, anxiety and social behaviours. Interestingly, both peptides and their receptors exhibit high sequence homology which could account for the biased signalling interaction of the peptides with OT and AVP receptors. However, how and under which conditions this crosstalk occurs in vivo remains unclear. In this review we shed light on the complexity of the roles of OT and AVP, by focusing on their signalling and behavioural differences and exploring the crosstalk between the receptor systems. Moreover, we discuss the potential of OT and AVP receptors as therapeutic targets to treat human disorders, such as autism, schizophrenia and drug abuse. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on Building Bridges in Neuropharmacology. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v179.8/issuetoc

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (AVP) signalling, receptor distribution, behavioural modulation, and therapeutic potential, emphasizing context-dependent effects and crosstalk between their receptor systems. It concludes that both systems are promising therapeutic targets but require further systematic study of in vivo crosstalk, dosing, timing, sex differences, and blood–brain barrier penetration.

Key findings

  • OT and AVP are nine-amino-acid cyclic amidated peptides differing at positions 3 and 8; OT binds OT receptors with higher affinity (Ki ~0.9 nM) than V1A (~20 nM) and V1B (~35 nM), whereas AVP binds OT and V1 receptors with similar low-nanomolar affinity, supporting signalling crosstalk.
  • OT and V1A receptors activate Gq/11 and Gi/o pathways, while V1B receptors activate Gs-, Gq-, and Gi/o-mediated signalling; OT receptors stably bind β-arrestin and recycle slowly (up to 4 h), whereas V1A receptors rapidly dissociate from β-arrestin and return to the membrane.
  • Behavioural effects are context-dependent: OT is often anxiolytic and prosocial but can enhance social fear, while AVP is linked to stress and aggression but also pair bonding and social recognition; crosstalk can affect social behaviour, as AVP/OT-induced social preference is blocked by an OT receptor antagonist but not a V1A antagonist.
  • Therapeutic evidence is mixed: a meta-analysis of 16 clinical trials found little or no effect of OT on autism symptoms; schizophrenia trials show some symptom improvement but inconsistent results; SUD studies show OT can reduce craving or consumption in some protocols but not others.

Methods

  • Narrative review with no primary experimental data; it synthesizes published in vitro, rodent, and human studies on OT/AVP synthesis, release, receptor distribution, signalling, behaviour, and therapeutic trials.
  • Main analysis is a thematic/qualitative synthesis across receptor pharmacology and crosstalk, rodent behaviours (stress/anxiety, social interaction, pair bonding, drugs of abuse), and human neuropsychological disorders (autism, schizophrenia, substance use disorder).
  • The review reports specific binding affinities, receptor distributions, and clinical trial doses/durations from cited literature; it does not conduct a systematic search or its own meta-analysis, though it cites a meta-analysis of 16 clinical trials.

Limitations

  • The paper states that how and under which conditions OT/AVP crosstalk occurs in vivo remains unclear and calls for carefully conducted signalling assays, receptor-selective ligands, and human-receptor-specific agonists.
  • The paper states that it is unclear whether peripherally administered OT/AVP cross the blood–brain barrier and whether plasma peptide levels reflect central levels; measurement is complicated by commercial kit issues and extracted versus unextracted plasma preparation.
  • The paper states that dose, duration, timing, sex/gender, brain circuits, and side-effects require further study; evident from the text, the review is narrative rather than systematic, and many conclusions rely on animal models and heterogeneous clinical trials.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/bph.15481

Cites

162 of 162 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 119 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    OT and AVP can be released from neuronal sites such as dendrites in a process known as volumetric transmission.

    “Besides PVN axonal terminals, OT and AVP can be released from different neuronal sites, such as dendrites, in a process known as volumetric transmission (Chini et al., 2017).”
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    • cites Chini et al., 2017

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  • Premisecitation

    OT and AVP are synthesized in the cell body of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract, specifically in magnocellular and parvocellular neurons of the PVN and SON.

    “OT and AVP are synthesized in the cell body of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract, specifically in magnocellular and parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON) (Stoop, 2012).”
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  • Premisecitation

    Under specific conditions, OT can enhance social fear.

    “most recently by studies showing that under specific conditions, OT can enhance social fear (Guzmán et al., 2013)”
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    • cites Guzmán et al., 2013

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  • Premisecitation

    In the brain, OT, V1A and V1B receptors are present in regions implicated in anxiety, social behaviour, memory, reward, motivation and stress.

    “In the brain, the OT, V1A and V1B receptors are present in regions implicated in anxiety, social behaviour, memory, reward, motivation and stress (Albers, 2012; Gimpl & Fahrenholz, 2001).”
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    • cites Albers, 2012

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    • cites Gimpl & Fahrenholz, 2001

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  • Premisecitation

    OT and AVP are released from PVN axon terminals to different brain regions via direct projections.

    “OT and AVP are released from PVN axon terminals to different brain regions via direct projections (Caldwell et al., 2008; Chini et al., 2017).”
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    • cites Chini et al., 2017

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  • May combine two claims. 31

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Both OT and AVP contain cysteine residues at positions 1 and 6 that form a disulphide bridge, leading to a cyclic secondary structure.

    “Both OT and AVP contain cysteine residues at positions 1 and 6 that form a disulphide bridge, leading to a cyclic secondary structure (Stoop, 2012).”
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    • cites Stoop, 2012

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    Premisecitation

    OT and AVP are endogenous peptides that bind to OT receptors and the V1A, V1B and V2 receptors respectively.

    “OT and vasopressin (AVP) are endogenous peptides that bind to the OT receptors and the V1A, V1B and V2 receptors respectively (Figure 1b).”
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    Premisecitation

    OT and AVP can function as hormones when peripherally released or as neuropeptides when released in the CNS.

    “These peptides can function as hormones when peripherally released or as neuropeptides when released in the CNS (Stoop, 2012).”
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    Premisecitation

    AVP synthesis has been described in the central amygdala, suprachiasmatic nucleus and bed nucleus of stria terminalis.

    “In addition, AVP synthesis has been described in the central amygdala (CeA), suprachiasmatic nucleus and bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BSNT) (Veenema & Neumann, 2008).”
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    • cites Veenema & Neumann, 2008

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    Premisecitation

    In vitro studies in COS7 cells expressing mouse OT and V1 receptors showed that AVP binds to OT and V1 receptors with similar affinity (Ki in the low nanomolar range) whereas OT binds to OT receptors with higher affinity (Ki ~0.9 nM) compared with V1A (Ki ~20 nM) and V1B receptors (Ki ~35 nM).

    “Support for this comes from in vitro studies by Busnelli and collaborators (Busnelli et al., 2013) (in COS7 cells expressing mouse OT and V1 receptors) showing that AVP binds to OT and V1 receptors with similar affinity (Ki in the low nanomolar range) whereas OT binds to OT receptors with a higher affinity (Ki ~0.9 nM) compared with V1A (Ki ~20 nM) and V1B receptors (Ki ~35 nM) (Table 1).”
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    • cites Busnelli et al., 2013

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    Premisecitation

    OT receptors activated by OT stably bind to β-arrestin and are either slowly recycled back to the cell surface (up to 4 h) or degraded in lysosomes.

    “OT receptors activated by OT, stably bind to β-arrestin, and are either slowly recycled back to cell surface (up to 4 h) or degraded in lysosomes (Chini et al., 2017).”
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    Premisecitation

    These behaviours in OT receptor knockout mice are restored to wild-type levels upon i.c.v. administration of AVP and this can be blocked by a selective V1A receptor antagonist.

    “These behaviours are restored to wild-type levels upon intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of AVP and this can be blocked by a selective V1A receptor antagonist.”
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    • cites Song & Albers, 2018

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    Premisecitation

    Atosiban is a competitive antagonist of OT receptor-Gq-mediated signalling and a selective agonist of the OT receptor-Gi pathway.

    “Atosiban, classically used as an OT receptor antagonist, was a competitive antagonist of OT receptor-Gq-mediated signalling and a selective agonist of the OT receptor-Gi pathway (Chini & Manning, 2007).”
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    Premisecitation

    Glu42 in OTR and Glu37, Arg46, Glu54 and Asp95 in V1A receptors play a critical role in OT and AVP binding, respectively.

    “More specifically, Glu42 in OTR and Glu37, Arg46, Glu54 and Asp95 in V1A receptors are found to play a critical role in OT and AVP binding, respectively (Hawtin et al., 2005; Waltenspühl et al., 2020).”
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    • cites Hawtin et al., 2005

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    • cites Waltenspühl et al., 2020

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    Interpretationcitation

    The high sequence similarity between OT and AVP and their respective receptors raises the possibility of crosstalk between both systems, in which AVP could bind to and activate OT receptors, and OT could bind to and activate V1 receptors.

    “The high sequence similarity between OT and AVP and their respective receptors raises the possibility of a crosstalk between both systems, in which AVP could bind to and activate OT receptors, and OT could bind to and activate V1 receptors, which led to the proposal that these peptides function as one ‘neurophyseal system’ (Young & Flanagan-Cato, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Young & Flanagan-Cato, 2012

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    Premisecitation

    OT receptor knockout mice have deficits in social exploration and recognition and exhibit increased aggressiveness.

    “An example is OT receptor knockout mice which have deficits in social exploration and recognition and exhibit increased aggressiveness.”
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    • cites Song & Albers, 2018

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    Premisecitation

    OT and V1 receptors across different species exhibit 40%-85% sequence similarity.

    “OT and V1 receptors across different species exhibit a 40%–85% sequence similarity (Chini & Manning, 2007).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    The sequence similarity between OT and AVP, the amino acid sequence conservation between their receptors, and the binding of OT to V1 receptors and AVP to OT receptors allows for signalling crosstalk, thereby enhancing the repertoire of signalling by the OT/AVP systems.

    “Taken together, the sequence similarity between OT and AVP, the amino acid sequence conservation between their receptors, and the binding of OT to V1 receptors and AVP to OT receptors allows for signalling crosstalk, thereby enhancing the repertoire of signalling by the OT/AVP systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the OT receptor, Glu42 is critical for high-affinity binding of agonists but not required for antagonist binding.

    “In the OT receptor, Glu42 is critical for high-affinity binding of agonists (full and partial) but not required for antagonist binding (peptide and non-peptide) (Wootten et al., 2011).”
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    Premisecitation

    OT axonal projections from the hypothalamus to the amygdala have been described, and its release in this brain region decreased freezing response in rats exposed to fear-conditioning.

    “OT axonal projections from the hypothalamus to the amygdala have been described, and its release in this brain region decreased freezing response in rats exposed to fear-conditioning (Knobloch et al., 2012).”
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    • cites Knobloch et al., 2012

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As social interaction becomes stronger or pair bonding occurs, there is a shift from dopamine D2 receptor activation in the ventral striatum to dopamine D1 receptor up-regulation and activation in the dorsal striatum, which could encode sensory information from unfamiliar counterparts as aversive, contributing to increased aggressive behaviours.

    “As the social interaction becomes stronger or pair bonding occurs, there is a shift from dopamine D2 receptor activation in the ventral striatum to dopamine D1 receptor up-regulation and activation in the dorsal striatum, which could encode sensory information from unfamiliar counterparts as aversive, contributing to increased aggressive behaviours.”
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    • cites Johnson & Young, 2015

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    Premisecitation

    Social isolation of male mice elicits anxiety-related behaviours by decreasing GABAergic transmission induced by OT in the CeA, an effect reversed by OT administration in this brain region, but not by i.c.v peptide administration.

    “Also, social isolation of male mice elicits anxiety-related behaviours by decreasing GABAergic transmission induced by OT in the CeA, an effect reversed by OT administration in this brain region, but not by i.c.v peptide administration (Han et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Han et al., 2018

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    Interpretationcitation

    Recent findings challenge the preconceived idea that OT is purely a pro social and anti-stress peptide and that both neuropeptides play largely opposite roles in social and anxiety-related behaviours.

    “as well as recent findings that challenge the preconceived idea that OT is purely a pro social and anti-stress peptide and that both neuropeptides play largely opposite roles in social and anxiety-related behaviours (Albers, 2012; Bartz et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Albers, 2012

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    • cites Bartz et al., 2011

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    Premisecitation

    Central administration of OT to female rats reduced plasma corticosterone release after noise stress and increased the time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze.

    “On the other hand, central administration of OT to female rats reduced plasma corticosterone release after noise stress and increased the time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze (EPM) (Windle et al., 1997).”
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    • cites Windle et al., 1997

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    Premisecitation

    In the PVN, OT neurons contain dopamine receptors and vice-versa.

    “Moreover, studies show that in the PVN, OT neurons contain dopamine receptors and vice-versa (Baskerville & Douglas, 2010)”
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    Premisecitation

    AVP deficient rats exposed to social defeat or restraint stress had lower ACTH and corticosterone levels compared with wild types; no differences were seen following exposure to ether inhalation or social avoidance.

    “Another study showed that AVP deficient rats exposed to social defeat or restraint stress had lower ACTH and corticosterone levels compared with wild types; no differences were seen following exposure to ether inhalation or social avoidance (Zelena et al., 2009).”
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    • cites Zelena et al., 2009

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    Premisecitation

    Acute treatment with V1B receptor antagonists decreased ACTH response to restraint and LPS stress but had no effect in response to noise stress.

    “A study showed that acute treatment with V1B receptor antagonists decreased ACTH response to restraint and LPS stress but had no effect in response to noise stress (Spiga et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Interpretationcitation

    OT acts as an anxiolytic and bond-promoting neuropeptide and AVP acts as a stress inducer and modulator of aggressive behaviour.

    “Here, we present studies that suggest that (i) OT acts as an anxiolytic and bond-promoting neuropeptide and AVP acts as a stress inducer and modulator of aggressive behaviour (Table 2);”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Albers, 2012

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    Interpretationcitation

    The role of AVP in stress response is dependent on the type of stressor and HPA axis activation can happen independently from AVP.

    “These results suggest that the role of AVP in stress response is dependent on the type of stressor and that HPA axis activation can happen independently from AVP.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In the proposed mechanism for social approach and bonding, OT diminishes social anxiety via OT receptors in the amygdala to facilitate social approach and bonding.

    “when the first encounter between two or more subjects occurs, OT is responsible for diminishing social anxiety, acting via OT receptors in the amygdala to facilitate social approach and bonding (Figure 2).”
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    Premisecitation

    Mice subjected to acute social defeat followed by contextual fear conditioning exhibited an increase in freezing as well as in OT receptor binding in the lateral septum; these effects were blocked by an OT receptor antagonist.

    “Regarding the nature of the social encounter, mice subjected to acute social defeat followed by contextual fear conditioning exhibited an increase in freezing (a fear-related behaviour) as well as in OT receptor binding in the lateral septum analysed via immunohistochemistry; these effects were blocked by an OT receptor antagonist (Guzmán et al., 2013) (Figure 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Guzmán et al., 2013

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    Premisecitation

    Increased activity of AVP magnocellular neurons leads to higher anxiety-like behaviour in the EPM test that is blocked by administration of a V1A receptor antagonist into the CeA.

    “Thus, increased activity of AVP magnocellular neurons leads to higher anxiety-like behaviour in the EPM test that is blocked by administration of a V1A receptor antagonist into the CeA (Hernández et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    AVP (and OT)-induced social preference and olfactory investigation are blocked by an antagonist to OT receptors but not to V1A receptors.

    “Interestingly, studies showed that AVP (and OT)-induced social preference and olfactory investigation are blocked by an antagonist to OT receptors but not to V1A receptors (Song & Albers, 2018)”
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    • cites Song & Albers, 2018

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    Premisecitation

    Socially isolated males have higher binding of V1A receptors and are more aggressive than group-housed males.

    “Also, socially isolated males have higher binding of V1A receptors and are more aggressive than group-housed males (Albers et al., 2006) (Figure 2).”
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    • cites Albers et al., 2006

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    Premisecitation

    V1A receptor knockout animals present decreased olfactory investigation behaviour and are unable to distinguish a previously known female.

    “Despite being more often linked with aggressive behaviour, AVP seems to be involved in social recognition, because V1A receptor knockout animals present decreased olfactory investigation behaviour and are unable to distinguish a previously known female (Bielsky et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Social recognition in prairie voles can be context dependent: single males can discriminate between male but not female conspecifics and display stronger male discrimination in a familiar territory compared with a novel or neutral one.

    “social recognition in prairie voles can be context dependent, as single males can discriminate between male but not female conspecifics and display stronger male discrimination in a familiar territory (own cage) compared with a novel (male conspecific cage) or a neutral one (new cage)”
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    Premisecitation

    In males, administration of a V1 receptor antagonist, but not an OT receptor antagonist, decreased pair bonding and aggression, without affecting mating behaviour.

    “On the other hand, in males, administration of a V1 receptor antagonist, but not an OT receptor antagonist, decreased pair bonding and aggression, without affecting mating behaviour (Winslow et al., 1993).”
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    Premisecitation

    In female prairie voles, i.c.v. administration of an OT receptor antagonist, but not a V1 receptor antagonist, blocked pair bonding, but did not affect mating.

    “In female prairie voles, i.c.v. administration of an OT receptor antagonist, but not an V1 receptor antagonist, blocked pair bonding, but did not affect mating (Insel & Hulihan, 1995).”
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    Premisecitation

    Sex, route, duration of treatment, animal strain and timing of OT administration affect the outcome of OT treatment.

    “sex, route, duration of treatment, animal strain and most importantly timing of OT administration were found to affect the outcome of OT treatment”
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    • cites King et al., 2020

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    OT and AVP could potentially be involved in human disorders such as autism, schizophrenia and substance use disorders and thus be used as pharmacotherapeutics or plasma level biomarkers for these disorders.

    “As pleiotropic neuromodulators with sites of action in numerous brain regions, OT and AVP could potentially be involved in human disorders such as autism, schizophrenia and substance use disorders (King et al., 2020; Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2011; Sarnyai et al., 1992) and thus be used as pharmacotherapeutics or plasma level biomarkers for these disorders.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites King et al., 2020

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    • cites Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2011

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    • cites Sarnyai et al., 1992

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    • Rests on an assumption: OT and AVP are pleiotropic neuromodulators with sites of action in numerous brain regions.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    OT and AVP are peptides with high physiological relevance.

    “OT and AVP are peptides with high physiological relevance”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
36 of 36

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    OT and AVP are pleiotropic neuromodulators with sites of action in numerous brain regions.

    “As pleiotropic neuromodulators with sites of action in numerous brain regions, OT and AVP could potentially be involved in human disorders”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Social- and stress-related behaviours are linked to SUD.

    “Because both social- and stress-related behaviours are linked to SUD, this places the OT and AVP systems as potential modulators of this disorder.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    OT is highly involved with lactation and parturition.

    “This is important for OT, as it is highly involved with lactation and parturition, which could be an impediment for its use in females.”
3 of 3

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Self-check

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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Social-defeat study identifies rats, but cited reference identifies mice

    Minor

    The text calls the animals in the Duque-Wilckens et al. study female rats, whereas the cited reference identifies them as female California mice.

  • Alcohol-drinking study identifies mice, but cited reference identifies rats

    Minor

    The text attributes reduced excessive alcohol drinking in mice to Zhou et al., but the cited reference identifies the animals as Sardinian alcohol-preferring rats.

  • Anxiety study identifies mice, but cited reference identifies rats

    Minor

    The text describes the Keck et al. study as involving high-anxiety mice, while the cited reference identifies its subjects as hyper-anxious rats.

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Authors
Rae, M., Lemos Duarte, M., Gomes, I., Camarini, R., & Devi, L. A.
Affiliations
  • Universidade de São Paulo (BR)
  • Department of Pharmacological Sciences Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai New York New York USA
  • Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
Corresponding author
Rae, Mariana
ORCID
Venue
British Journal of Pharmacology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2021-05-21
Volume
179
Issue
8
Pages
1544-1564
ISSN
  • 0007-1188 (ISSN-L)
  • 1476-5381
DOI
10.1111/bph.15481
PMC
PMC8488062
OpenAlex
W3148742819
Semantic Scholar
0fb239a4b5acd80ee5f8ffa4d378ebb912a33fcd
Cited by
72
References
162
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 5
FWCI
1.96
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • British Journal of Pharmacology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (#141698/2016‐0, #470070/2012‐9)
  • Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (PROAP‐Social Demand)
  • Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (#2018/05038‐0)
  • National Institutes of Health (DA008863, NS026880)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuropeptides and Animal Physiology
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Keywords
oxytocin, vasopressin, receptor cross-talk, biased signalling, stress, anxiety, social behavior, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, drug abuse, therapeutic target
MeSH terms
Brain, Humans, Ligands, Oxytocin, Social Behavior, Vasopressins, Receptors, Vasopressin, Receptors, Oxytocin

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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