Serotonin and brain function: a tale of two receptors

Carhart-Harris, RL; Nutt, DJ

doi:10.1177/0269881117725915

Cited by 739Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorPsychedelics and Drug StudiesTreatment of Major Depression

Serotonin and brain function: a tale of two receptors

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Carhart-Harris, RL, Nutt, DJ·2017·Journal of Psychopharmacology

DOI 10.1177/0269881117725915PMC PMC5606297

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Abstract

Previous attempts to identify a unified theory of brain serotonin function have largely failed to achieve consensus. In this present synthesis, we integrate previous perspectives with new and older data to create a novel bipartite model centred on the view that serotonin neurotransmission enhances two distinct adaptive responses to adversity, mediated in large part by its two most prevalent and researched brain receptors: the 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. We propose that passive coping (i.e. tolerating a source of stress) is mediated by postsynaptic 5-HT1AR signalling and characterised by stress moderation. Conversely, we argue that active coping (i.e. actively addressing a source of stress) is mediated by 5-HT2AR signalling and characterised by enhanced plasticity (defined as capacity for change). We propose that 5-HT1AR-mediated stress moderation may be the brain’s default response to adversity but that an improved ability to change one’s situation and/or relationship to it via 5-HT2AR-mediated plasticity may also be important – and increasingly so as the level of adversity reaches a critical point. We propose that the 5-HT1AR pathway is enhanced by conventional 5-HT reuptake blocking antidepressants such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), whereas the 5-HT2AR pathway is enhanced by 5-HT2AR-agonist psychedelics. This bipartite model purports to explain how different drugs (SSRIs and psychedelics) that modulate the serotonergic system in different ways, can achieve complementary adaptive and potentially therapeutic outcomes.

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Exploratory analyses using PET receptor atlases revealed a positive correlation between cortical 5-HT2A receptor distribution and abnormal MMN source activity in PD-VH, consistent with the known role of serotonin in cortical disinhibition and psychosis.
“exploratory analyses using PET receptor atlases revealed a positive correlation between cortical 5-HT2A receptor distribution and abnormal MMN source activity in PD-VH, consistent with the known role of serotonin in cortical disinhibition53 and psychosis42,43”
From Deviations in effective connectivity explain different hallucination subtypes in Parkinson's disease psychosis (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
MDMA's influence on the salience network facilitates a shift toward positive emotional experiences, reinforcing affective learning and emotional regulation.
“MDMA’s influence on the salience network also facilitates a shift toward positive emotional experiences, reinforcing affective learning and emotional regulation (93, 94).”
From Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach (2025) · cites this paper as [94]
In “Serotonin, depression and mood” (page not supplied), the paper describes MDMA’s positive mood effects and reports changes in limbic functional connectivity after MDMA. It does not identify the salience network as the mechanism for those effects or say that the shift reinforces affective learning and emotional regulation. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
5-HT signalling is known to modulate the communication between key constituents of fear and anxiety circuitries.
“5-HT signalling is known to modulate the communication between key constituents of fear and anxiety circuitries (Babaev, Piletti Chatain, & Krueger-Burg, 2018;Carhart-Harris & Nutt, 2017).”
From Novel pharmacological targets in drug development for the treatment of anxiety and anxiety-related disorders (2019) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris & Nutt, 2017

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Touched With Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament
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The default-mode, ego-functions and free-energy: a neurobiological account of Freudian ideas
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Neurochemical Modulation of Response Inhibition and Probabilistic Learning in Humans
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Depression, rumination and the default network
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SERUM VASOCONSTRICTOR (SEROTONIN)
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Neuropsychopharmacology
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Serotonin Content of Some Mammalian Tissues and Urine and a Method for Its Determination
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INCREASED SEROTONIN-2 BINDING SITES IN FRONTAL CORTEX OF SUICIDE VICTIMS
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Mysticism and Philosophy
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Effector Pathway-Dependent Relative Efficacy at Serotonin Type 2A and 2C Receptors: Evidence for Agonist-Directed Trafficking of Receptor Stimulus
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Increased global functional connectivity correlates with LSD-induced ego dissolution
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Modern views on an ancient chemical: serotonin effects on cell proliferation, maturation, and apoptosis
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Survey study of challenging experiences after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms: Acute and enduring positive and negative consequences
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Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report
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Set and setting, psychedelics and the placebo response: an extra-pharmacological perspective on psychopharmacology
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5-HT2AReceptor-Mediated Regulation of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor mRNA in the Hippocampus and the Neocortex
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Variation in the Gene Encoding the Serotonin 2A Receptor Is Associated with Outcome of Antidepressant Treatment
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Ego-dissolution and psychedelics: validation of the ego-dissolution inventory (EDI).
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Self-citation
Antidepressant Effects of a Single Dose of Ayahuasca in Patients With Recurrent Depression: A SPECT Study
Sanches, R. F., de Lima Osório, F., dos Santos, R. G., Macedo, L. R. H., Maia-de-Oliveira, J. P., Wichert-Ana, L., de Araujo, D. B., Riba, J., Crippa, J. A. S., & Hallak, J. E. C. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000000436 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Broadband Cortical Desynchronization Underlies the Human Psychedelic State
Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Moran, R., Brookes, M. J., Williams, T. M., Errtizoe, D., Sessa, B., Papadopoulos, A., Bolstridge, M., Singh, K. D., et al. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2063-13.2013 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Self-citation
Serotonin modulation of cortical neurons and networks
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Serotonin and neuroplasticity – Links between molecular, functional and structural pathophysiology in depression
Kraus, C., Castrén, E., Kasper, S., & Lanzenberger, R. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.03.007 · Cited by 457 · cited 5× · see citing works
“…the hippocampus) is a 5-HT1AR-mediated effect (Gould, 1999; Huang and Herbert, 2005; Malberg et al., 2000; Santarelli et al., 2003); however, other 5-HT receptors (e.g. the 5-HT4 and 5-HT2A) are also thought to contribute (Azmitia, 2001; Imoto et al., 2015; Jha et al., 2008; Kraus et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluential
LSD-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with a life-threatening disease: A qualitative study of acute and sustained subjective effects
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IDO and interferon-α-induced depressive symptoms: a shift in hypothesis from tryptophan depletion to neurotoxicity
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Stuck in a rut: rethinking depression and its treatment
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Cortical 5-HT 2A Receptor Signaling Modulates Anxiety-Like Behaviors in Mice
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Serotonin and Prefrontal Cortex Function: Neurons, Networks, and Circuits
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The Near-Death Experience Scale: Construction, Reliability, and Validity
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Increased spontaneous MEG signal diversity for psychoactive doses of ketamine, LSD and psilocybin
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Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Healthy Subjects
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Enhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states during the psychedelic experience
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Serotonergic neurons signal reward and punishment on multiple timescales
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The role of serotonin 5-HT2A receptors in memory and cognition
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Serotonin in Affective Control
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Durability of improvement in post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and absence of harmful effects or drug dependency after 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy: a prospective long-term follow-up study
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What has serotonin to do with depression?
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Serotonin and hallucinogens
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Co-expression and In Vivo Interaction of Serotonin1A and Serotonin2A Receptors in Pyramidal Neurons of Prefrontal Cortex
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Prediction of Psilocybin Response in Healthy Volunteers
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A High-ResolutionIn VivoAtlas of the Human Brain's Serotonin System
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The Challenging Experience Questionnaire: Characterization of challenging experiences with psilocybin mushrooms
Barrett, F. S., Bradstreet, M. P., Leoutsakos, J.-M. S., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116678781 · Cited by 366 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2006) (although acute panic can occur (Barrett et al., 2016; Carbonaro et al., 2016)), yet there is increasing evidence that anxiety can be significantly reduced for a prolonged period after a therapeutically mediated psychedelic drug experience (Gasser et al.”
Background
Diminished neural processing of aversive and rewarding stimuli during selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment
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Beyond risk, resilience, and dysregulation: Phenotypic plasticity and human development
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Emotional side-effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: qualitative study
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Classic psychedelic use is associated with reduced psychological distress and suicidality in the United States adult population
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MDMA enhances emotional empathy and prosocial behavior
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Cognitive Inflexibility after Prefrontal Serotonin Depletion Is Behaviorally and Neurochemically Specific
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Hippocampal Angiogenesis and Progenitor Cell Proliferation Are Increased with Antidepressant Use in Major Depression
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The role of 5-HT1A receptors in learning and memory
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Serotonin Release as a Possible Mechanism of Reserpine Action
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Autoradiographic distribution of serotonin transporters and receptor subtypes in human brain.
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Serotonin and Hippocampal Neurogenesis
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Serotonin 5-HT1A Receptors as Targets for Agents to Treat Psychiatric Disorders: Rationale and Current Status of Research
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5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor antagonists have opposing effects on a measure of impulsivity: interactions with global 5-HT depletion
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Structural Plasticity of the Hippocampus and Amygdala Induced by Electroconvulsive Therapy in Major Depression
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LSD enhances suggestibility in healthy volunteers
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Self-citation
5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptor agonists and aggression: A pharmacological challenge of the serotonin deficiency hypothesis
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Personality, psychopathology, life attitudes and neuropsychological performance among ritual users of ayahuasca: a longitudinal study.
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Recent advances in the neuropsychopharmacology of serotonergic hallucinogens
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“…this limitation, we also wish to emphasise that the evidence is compelling that 5-HT2AR agonism is key to psychedelics’ most characteristic effects (Halberstadt, 2015), 5-HT1AR agonism attenuates rather than augments these effects (Pokorny et al., 2016; Strassman, 1996) and more selective 5-HT2AR…”
Background
Mephedrone, compared with MDMA (ecstasy) and amphetamine, rapidly increases both dopamine and 5-HT levels in nucleus accumbens of awake rats
Kehr, J., Ichinose, F., Yoshitake, S., Goiny, M., Sievertsson, T., Nyberg, F., & Yoshitake, T. (2011) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01499.x · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Realms of the Human Unconscious: Observations from LSD Research
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Serotonin receptors involved in antidepressant effects
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LSD‐induced entropic brain activity predicts subsequent personality change
Lebedev, A. V., Kaelen, M., Lövdén, M., Nilsson, J., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart‐Harris, R. L. (2016) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23234 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Self-citation
Psilocybin Biases Facial Recognition, Goal-Directed Behavior, and Mood State Toward Positive Relative to Negative Emotions Through Different Serotonergic Subreceptors
Kometer, M., Schmidt, A., Bachmann, R., Studerus, E., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2012) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.04.005 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Paradoxical trafficking and regulation of 5-HT2A receptors by agonists and antagonists
Gray, J. A. B., & Roth, B. L. (2001) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(01)00623-2 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
The paradoxical psychological effects of lysergic acid diethylamide LSD
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Kaelen, M., Bolstridge, M., Williams, T. M., Williams, L. T., Underwood, R., Feilding, A., & Nutt, D. J. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715002901 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Self-citation
Is Pharma Running Out of Brainy Ideas?
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“For the brave new psychiatry of the future – that many would like to see (Miller, 2010) – decisions about whether to passively endure or actively address, may become increasingly pertinent.”
Background
Behavioural and neurochemical effects induced by chronic mild stress applied to two different rat strains
Bekris, S., Antoniou, K., Daskas, S., & Papadopoulou-Daifoti, Z. (2005) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2005.01.005 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Higher Expression of Serotonin 5-HT2A Receptors in the Postmortem Brains of Teenage Suicide Victims
Pandey, G. N., Dwivedi, Y., Rizavi, H. S., Ren, X., Pandey, S. C., Pesold, C., Roberts, R. C., Conley, R. R., & Tamminga, C. A. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.419 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Is serotonin an upper or a downer? The evolution of the serotonergic system and its role in depression and the antidepressant response.
Andrews, P. W., Bharwani, A., Lee, K. R., Fox, M., & Thomson, J. A. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.018 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Optogenetic Activation of Dorsal Raphe Serotonin Neurons Enhances Patience for Future Rewards
Miyazaki, K. W., Miyazaki, K., Tanaka, K. F., Yamanaka, A., Takahashi, A., Tabuchi, S., & Doya, K. (2014) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.07.041 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Prediction of Level of Serotonin 2A Receptor Binding by Serotonin Receptor 2A Genetic Variation in Postmortem Brain Samples From Subjects Who Did or Did Not Commit Suicide
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The effects of psilocybin and MDMA on between-network resting state functional connectivity in healthy volunteers
Roseman, L., Leech, R., Feilding, A., Nutt, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00204 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Self-citation
Reconciling the Role of Serotonin in Behavioral Inhibition and Aversion: Acute Tryptophan Depletion Abolishes Punishment-Induced Inhibition in Humans
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Neuropsychological mechanism underlying antidepressant effect: a systematic meta-analysis
Ma, Y. (2015) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2014.24 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Effects of psilocybin on hippocampal neurogenesis and extinction of trace fear conditioning
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Dysfunctional Attitudes and 5-HT2 Receptors During Depression and Self-Harm
Meyer, J. H., McMain, S., Kennedy, S. H., Korman, L., Brown, G. M., DaSilva, J. N., Wilson, A. A., Blak, T., Eynan-Harvey, R., Goulding, V. S., et al. (2003) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.90 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Human psychopharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine
Strassman, R. J. (1995) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0166-4328(96)00081-2 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered
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Authors: Carhart-Harris, R., & Nutt, D.
Affiliations: Psychedelic Research Group, Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
Venue: Journal of Psychopharmacology
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2017-08-31
Volume: 31
Issue: 9
Pages: 1091-1120
ISSN: 0269-8811 (ISSN-L)
1461-7285
DOI: 10.1177/0269881117725915
PMC: PMC5606297
OpenAlex: W2753654430
Cited by: 739
References: 541
Citations by year: 2026: 80 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 131 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 98 · 2020: 81 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 4
FWCI: 5.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Psychopharmacology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: Medical Research Council (MR/J00460X/1)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
Keywords: serotonin, 5-HT1A receptor, 5-HT2A receptor, serotonergic neurotransmission, stress coping, passive coping, active coping, neuroplasticity, adversity, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, psychedelics, 5-HT2A receptor agonists, antidepressants, serotonergic system
MeSH terms: Animals, Antidepressive Agents, Brain, Hallucinogens, Humans, Synaptic Transmission, Serotonin, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT1A, Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A

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Serotonin and brain function: a tale of two receptors

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