Exchange and Power in Social Life
Abstract
In his landmark study of exchange and power in social life, Peter M. Blau contributes to an understanding of social structure by analyzing the social processes that govern the relations between individuals and groups. The basic question that Blau considers is: How does social life become organized into increasingly complex structures of associations among humans.This analysis, first published in 1964, represents a pioneering contribution to the sociological literature. Blau uses concepts of exchange, reciprocity, imbalance, and power to examine social life and to derive the more complex processes in social structure from the simpler ones. The principles of reciprocity and imbalance are used to derive such processes as power, changes in group structure; and the two major forces that govern the dynamics of complex social structures: the legitimization of organizing authority of increasing scope and the emergence of oppositions along different lines producing conflict and change.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A Theoretical Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model: Four Longitudinal Field Studies
Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.46.2.186.11926 · Cited by 23,066 · see citing works
Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology
Portes, A. (1998) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.1 · Cited by 12,037 · see citing works
The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing
Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224299405800302 · Cited by 22,355 · see citing works
Developing buyer-seller relationships
Dwyer, F. R., Schurr, P. H., & Oh, S. (1987) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224298705100202 · Cited by 9,139 · see citing works
Social Capital: Prospects for a New Concept
Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S.-W. (2002) · The Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/4134367 · Cited by 9,665 · see citing works
Perceived organizational support.
Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.500 · Cited by 6,982 · see citing works
Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure
Hochschild, A. R. (1979) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/227049 · Cited by 5,962 · see citing works
Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001 · Cited by 5,478 · see citing works
Ethical leadership: A review and future directions
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2006) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004 · Cited by 4,029 · see citing works
Social Capital, Networks, and Knowledge Transfer
Inkpen, A. C., & Tsang, E. W. K. (2005) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2005.15281445 · Cited by 3,864 · see citing works
Embeddedness and Immigration: Notes on the Social Determinants of Economic Action
Portes, A., & Sensenbrenner, J. (1993) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/230191 · Cited by 3,493 · see citing works
Emerson, R. M. (1976) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.so.02.080176.002003 · Cited by 3,457 · see citing works
Moorman, R. H. (1991) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-9010.76.6.845 · Cited by 3,422 · see citing works
A Relational Model of Authority in Groups
Tyler, T. R., & Lind, E. A. (1992) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60283-x · Cited by 2,977 · see citing works
Rempel, J. K., Holmes, J. G., & Zanna, M. P. (1985) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.49.1.95 · Cited by 3,146 · see citing works
Dwivedi, Y. K., Ismagilova, E., Hughes, D. L., Carlson, J., Filieri, R., Jacobson, J., Jain, V., Karjaluoto, H., Kefi, H., Krishen, A. S., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102168 · Cited by 2,620 · see citing works
The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations.
Fiske, A. P. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.4.689 · Cited by 2,510 · see citing works
Podsakoff, N. P., Whiting, S. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & Blume, B. D. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013079 · Cited by 2,356 · see citing works
Gefen, D., & Straub, D. W. (2004) · Omega · doi:10.1016/j.omega.2004.01.006 · Cited by 2,025 · see citing works
Relational leadership theory: exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing
Uhl-Bien, M. (2006) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.007 · Cited by 1,973 · see citing works
Proctor, E. K., Landsverk, J., Aarons, G., Chambers, D., Glisson, C., & Mittman, B. (2009) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-008-0197-4 · Cited by 1,894 · see citing works
Servant Leadership: A systematic review and call for future research
Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.07.004 · Cited by 1,858 · see citing works
“Social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) is based on the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960) in which servant leaders and their followers provide valued resources and support in exchange for resources and support received from the dyadic partner.”
BackgroundThe social control of impersonal trust
Shapiro, S. P. (1987) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/228791 · Cited by 1,725 · see citing works
Dulebohn, J. H., Bommer, W. H., Liden, R. C., Brouer, R. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2012) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206311415280 · Cited by 1,625 · see citing works
How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model
Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., & Salvador, R. (. (2009) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.002 · Cited by 1,598 · see citing works
Treviño, L. K., Brown, M., & Hartman, L. P. (2003) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726703056001448 · Cited by 1,372 · see citing works
What drives social commerce: The role of social support and relationship quality
Liang, T.-P., Ho, Y.-T., Li, Y.-W., & Turban, E. (2011) · International Journal of Electronic Commerce · doi:10.2753/jec1086-4415160204 · Cited by 1,254 · see citing works
Awad, N. F., & Krishnan, M. S. (2006) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/25148715 · Cited by 1,252 · see citing works
Leader-member exchange and citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis
Ilies, R., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.269 · Cited by 1,210 · see citing works
Is the desire for status a fundamental human motive? A review of the empirical literature.
Anderson, C., Hildreth, J. A. D., & Howland, L. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038781 · Cited by 1,133 · see citing works
From creativity to innovation: The social network drivers of the four phases of the idea journey
Perry-Smith, J. E., & Mannucci, P. V. (2017) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2014.0462 · Cited by 1,121 · see citing works
Walumbwa, F. O., & Schaubroeck, J. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015848 · Cited by 1,114 · see citing works
Kirkman, B. L., Chen, G., Farh, J.-L., Chen, Z. X., & Lowe, K. B. (2009) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2009.43669971 · Cited by 1,094 · see citing works
Predicting voice behavior in work groups.
LePine, J. A., & Van Dyne, L. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.6.853 · Cited by 1,192 · see citing works
The dark side of buyer–supplier relationships: A social capital perspective⋆
Villena, V. H., Revilla, E., & Choi, T. Y. (2011) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/j.jom.2010.09.001 · Cited by 1,018 · see citing works
Hassanein, K., & Head, M. (2007) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2006.11.018 · Cited by 986 · see citing works
Hollebeek, L. D., & Macky, K. (2019) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2018.07.003 · Cited by 978 · see citing works
Walumbwa, F. O., Hartnell, C. A., & Oke, A. (2010) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018867 · Cited by 940 · see citing works
Psychological Ownership: Theoretical Extensions, Measurement, and Relation to Work Outcomes
Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Crossley, C. D., & Luthans, F. (2009) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.583 · Cited by 920 · see citing works
Uncertainty management by means of fairness judgments
van den Bos, K., & Lind, E. A. (2002) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(02)80003-x · Cited by 913 · see citing works
Antecedents and outcomes of abusive supervision: test of a trickle-down model.
Aryee, S., Chen, Z. X., Sun, L.-Y., & Debrah, Y. A. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.191 · Cited by 914 · see citing works
Umphress, E. E., Bingham, J. B., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019214 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
A little thanks goes a long way: explaining why gratitude expressions motivate prosocial behavior
Grant, A. M., & Gino, F. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017935 · Cited by 870 · see citing works
Kalshoven, K., Den Hartog, D. N., & De Hoogh, A. H. B. (2011) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.12.007 · Cited by 824 · see citing works
Customer engagement with tourism social media brands
Harrigan, P., Evers, U., Miles, M., & Daly, T. (2017) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2016.09.015 · Cited by 813 · see citing works
Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) and Performance: A Meta‐Analytic Review
Martin, R., Guillaume, Y., Thomas, G., Lee, A., & Epitropaki, O. (2016) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12100 · Cited by 809 · see citing works
Beldad, A., de Jong, M., & Steehouder, M. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.013 · Cited by 754 · see citing works
First‐time mothers: social support, maternal parental self‐efficacy and postnatal depression
Leahy‐Warren, P., McCarthy, G., & Corcoran, P. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2011.03701.x · Cited by 710 · see citing works
Servant leadership: Validation of a short form of the SL-28
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Meuser, J. D., Hu, J., Wu, J., & Liao, C. (2015) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.12.002 · Cited by 712 · see citing works
Abusive supervision: A meta-analysis and empirical review
Mackey, J. D., Frieder, R. E., Brees, J. R., & Martinko, M. J. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206315573997 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
A meta-analytic review of ethical leadership outcomes and moderators
Bedi, A., Alpaslan, C. M., & Green, S. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2625-1 · Cited by 698 · see citing works
Leadership behavior and employee well-being: An integrated review and a future research agenda
Inceoglu, I., Thomas, G., Chu, C., Plans, D., & Gerbasi, A. (2018) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.006 · Cited by 670 · see citing works
Research on Gossip: Taxonomy, Methods, and Future Directions
Foster, E. K. (2004) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.2.78 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
Awad, N. F., & Ragowsky, A. (2008) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.2753/mis0742-1222240404 · Cited by 648 · see citing works
Health Promoting Effects of Friends and Family on Health Outcomes in Older Adults
Seeman, T. E. (2000) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-14.6.362 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
A review of loneliness: concept and definitions, determinants and consequences
Gierveld, J. D. J. (1998) · Reviews in Clinical Gerontology · doi:10.1017/s0959259898008090 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Lemoine, G. J., Hartnell, C. A., & Leroy, H. (2019) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2016.0121 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Eby, L. T. D. T., Allen, T. D., Hoffman, B. J., Baranik, L. E., Sauer, J. B., Baldwin, S., Morrison, M. A., Kinkade, K. M., Maher, C. P., Curtis, S., et al. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0029279 · Cited by 604 · see citing works
Pavlou, P. A., & Gefen, D. (2005) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.1050.0065 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
Hunter, E. M., Neubert, M. J., Perry, S. J., Witt, L. A., Penney, L. M., & Weinberger, E. (2013) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.12.001 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Hu, J., & Liden, R. C. (2011) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022465 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Liu, W., Zhu, R., & Yang, Y. (2010) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.10.014 · Cited by 555 · see citing works
Trust, Connectivity, and Thriving: Implications for Innovative Behaviors at Work
CARMELI, A., & SPREITZER, G. M. (2009) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/j.2162-6057.2009.tb01313.x · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Newman, A., Schwarz, G., Cooper, B., & Sendjaya, S. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2827-6 · Cited by 552 · see citing works
Chiniara, M., & Bentein, K. (2016) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.08.004 · Cited by 544 · see citing works
The Dynamics of Interorganizational Coordination
de Ven, A. H. V., & Walker, G. (1984) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2392941 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
Dutton, J. E., Workman, K. M., & Hardin, A. E. (2014) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
Harris, K. J., Kacmar, K. M., & Zivnuska, S. (2007) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.007 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
Shiau, W.-L., & Luo, M. M. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.07.030 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
Alexandrov, A., Lilly, B., & Babakus, E. (2013) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-012-0323-4 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
LMX differentiation: A multilevel review and examination of its antecedents and outcomes
Henderson, D. J., Liden, R. C., Glibkowski, B. C., & Chaudhry, A. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.04.003 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Well, I’m tired of tryin’! Organizational citizenship behavior and citizenship fatigue
Bolino, M. C., Hsiung, H.-H., Harvey, J., & LePine, J. A. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037583 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Braganza, A., Chen, W., Canhoto, A., & Sap, S. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.08.018 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
“Employee engagement and job engagement are interchangeably-used terms, generally defined as employee outcomes that enhance organizational success with better financial gains (Bates, 2004; Richman, 2006).”
Social media: A contextual framework to guide research and practice.
McFarland, L. A., & Ployhart, R. E. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039244 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Relationships at Work: Toward a Multidimensional Conceptualization of Dyadic Work Relationships
Ferris, G. R., Liden, R. C., Munyon, T. P., Summers, J. K., Basik, K. J., & Buckley, M. R. (2009) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206309344741 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Huang, X., Iun, J., Liu, A., & Gong, Y. (2010) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.636 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
Lin, Z., Chen, Y., & Filieri, R. (2017) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2017.02.013 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Linking justice, trust and innovative work behaviour to work engagement
A. Agarwal, U. (2014) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-02-2012-0019 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Chen, Z., Lam, W., & Zhong, J. A. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.202 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Ethical leadership: Meta-analytic evidence of criterion-related and incremental validity.
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038246 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Cullen, K. L., Edwards, B. D., Casper, W. C., & Gue, K. R. (2014) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-013-9312-y · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Breuer, C., Hüffmeier, J., & Hertel, G. (2016) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000113 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Innovative human resource practices and organizational commitment: an empirical investigation
Agarwala, T. (2003) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/0958519021000029072 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Lee, A., Lyubovnikova, J., Tian, A. W., & Knight, C. (2020) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12265 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer.
Bem, D. J., & Honorton, C. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.4 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
The New Era Workplace Relationships: Is Social Exchange Theory Still Relevant?
Chernyak-Hai, L., & Rabenu, E. (2018) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1017/iop.2018.5 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Gajendran, R. S., Harrison, D. A., & Delaney‐Klinger, K. (2015) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12082 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Anderson, H. J., Baur, J. E., Griffith, J. A., & Buckley, M. R. (2017) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.08.001 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Power, competitiveness, and advice taking: Why the powerful don’t listen
Tost, L. P., Gino, F., & Larrick, R. P. (2012) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.10.001 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Signaling the Trustworthiness of Small Online Retailers
Wang, S., Beatty, S. E., & Foxx, W. (2004) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1002/dir.10071 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Relationshopping: Investigating the market metaphor in online dating
Heino, R. D., Ellison, N. B., & Gibbs, J. L. (2010) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407510361614 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Kraimer, M. L., & Sparrowe, R. T. (2003) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.208 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Processing of the incentive for social approval in the ventral striatum during charitable donation
Izuma, K., Saito, D. N., & Sadato, N. (2010) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21228 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Long work hours: a social identity perspective on meta‐analysis data
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2008) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.536 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Ethical leadership: Mapping the terrain for concept cleanup and a future research agenda
Banks, G. C., Fischer, T., Gooty, J., & Stock, G. (2021) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101471 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Cogliser, C. C., Schriesheim, C. A., Scandura, T. A., & Gardner, W. L. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.010 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Leader–member social exchange (LMSX): Development and validation of a scale
Bernerth, J. B., Armenakis, A. A., Feild, H. S., Giles, W. F., & Walker, H. J. (2007) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.443 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
The effects of pay level on organization‐based self‐esteem and performance: A field study
Gardner, D. G., Van Dyne, L., & Pierce, J. L. (2004) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/0963179041752646 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Rule Enforcement Without Visible Means: Christmas Gift Giving in Middletown
Caplow, T. (1984) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/228017 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Accommodating Employees With and Without Disabilities
Schur, L., Nishii, L., Adya, M., Kruse, D., Bruyère, S. M., & Blanck, P. (2014) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21607 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
- Authors
- Blau, P. M.
- Corresponding author
- Blau, Peter M.
- Venue
- Routledge eBooks
- Publisher
- Routledge
- Published
- 2017-09-29
- OpenAlex
- W2037710531
- Cited by
- 15,923
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 286 · 2025: 596 · 2024: 508 · 2023: 536 · 2022: 426 · 2021: 663 · 2020: 677 · 2019: 676 · 2018: 717 · 2017: 748 · 2016: 839 · 2015: 943 · 2014: 878 · 2013: 787 · 2012: 774
- FWCI
- 779.36
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Routledge eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Contemporary Sociological Theory and Practice
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Capital and Networks
- Keywords
- social exchange, power, reciprocity, unbalance, social structure, social organization, group structure, social conflict, social change
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
