Depression as a risk factor for the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus. A meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Aims/hypothesis Evidence strongly suggests that depression and type 2 diabetes are associated, but the direction of the association is still unclear. Depression may occur as a consequence of having diabetes, but may also be a risk factor for the onset of type 2 diabetes. This study examined the latter association by reviewing the literature and conducting a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies on this topic.Methods Medline and PsycInfo were searched for articles published up to January 2005. All studies that examined the relationship between depression and the onset of type 2 diabetes were included. Pooled relative risks were calculated using fixed and random effects models. To explore sources of heterogeneity between studies, subgroup analyses and meta-regression analyses were performed.Results Nine studies met our inclusion criteria for this meta-analysis. The pooled relative risk was 1.26 (1.13-1.39) using the fixed effects model and 1.37 (1.14-1.63) using the random effects model. Heterogeneity between studies could not be explained by (1) whether studies controlled for undetected diabetes at baseline; (2) the method of diabetes assessment at follow-up; (3) the baseline overall risk of diabetes in the study population; and (4) follow-up duration.Conclusions/interpretation Depressed adults have a 37% increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this relationship are still unclear and warrant further research. A randomised controlled study is needed to test whether effective prevention or treatment of depression can reduce the incidence of type 2 diabetes and its health consequences.
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In nine studies (n=174,035; average 9.4 year follow-up), depression is associated with increased risk of T2DM (RR 1.37, 95% CI 1.14-1.63).
“| Nine studies ( n = 174,035; average 9.4 year follow-up) | Depression | *RR 1.37 (95% CI 1.14-1.63). | Knol (2006) 59 |”
From Type 2 diabetes mellitus and psychological stress — a modifiable risk factor (2017) · cites this paper as Knol (2006) 59
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDepression is associated with an increased risk of diabetes mellitus.
“Results from meta-analyses and prospective cohort studies indicate that depression is associated with an increased risk of diabetes mellitus 65-68”
From Type 2 diabetes mellitus and psychological stress — a modifiable risk factor (2017) · cites this paper as [65]
Several studies have found that people with depression are at risk for developing type 2 diabetes.
“Several studies have found that people with depression are at risk for developing type 2 diabetes (Knol et al., 2006), two conditions found to be most prevalent in Känaka Maoli with a traditional strategy of acculturation.”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Knol et al., 2006
Amantadine has low-level evidence for use in olanzapine-induced weight gain.
“Low-level evidence for use in olanzapineinduced weight gain.69,70”
From The Lancet Psychiatry Commission: a blueprint for protecting physical health in people with mental illness (2019) · cites this paper as [70]
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- Authors
- Knol, M. J., Twisk, J. W. R., Beekman, A. T. F., Heine, R. J., Snoek, F. J., & Pouwer, F.
- Affiliations
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Amsterdam Public Health (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Pouwer, F.
- Venue
- Diabetologia
- Published
- 2006-03-07
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 837-845
- ISSN
- 0012-186X (ISSN-L)
- 1432-0428
- OpenAlex
- W2102694004
- Semantic Scholar
- fff59c04c858f12f93ee3b0cfbcedb594646e1e4
- Cited by
- 974
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 59 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 75 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 77 · 2013: 62 · 2012: 75
- FWCI
- 4.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Diabetologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Research portal (Tilburg University) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Diabetes Fonds
- Novo Nordisk
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac Health and Mental Health
- Keywords
- depression, type 2 diabetes, diabetes incidence, depression as risk factor
- MeSH terms
- Depression, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Risk Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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