Phase II MS4 challenges: moving toward effective stormwater management for small municipalities

May combine two claims.

Maintaining, inspecting, and monitoring BMPs is a small but annual cost compared to the large, infrequent costs usually associated with grey infrastructure projects, causing further challenges to Phase II MS4 permittees that may lack manpower in maintenance departments and/or employees dedicated to work on urban stormwater programs.

“Maintaining, inspecting, and monitoring BMPs is a small but annual cost compared to the large, infrequent costs usually associated with grey infrastructure projects (Vineyard et al. 2015;Chini et al. 2017;Miller and Montalto 2019;William et al. 2020), causing further challenges to Phase II MS4 permittees that may lack manpower”

• cites Vineyard et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Chini et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Achieving the benefit of local communities seeing stormwater systems as providing tangible local benefits requires managers to include communities in decision-making processes.

“Achieving this benefit requires managers to include communities in decision-making processes and can help create resilient and effective programs with local social and ecological co-benefits (BenDor et al. 2018;Hoover and Hopton 2019;Miller and Montalto 2019).”

• cites BenDor et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hoover and Hopton 2019 sourceSupported
• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions (page unavailable) say that designing green infrastructure to provide multiple ecosystem services may increase public support and local value. Refocusing GI Programs (page unavailable) likewise recommends aligning investment with community values. The paper does not say that achieving these benefits requires managers to include communities in decision-making processes. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In California, urban land use and construction are responsible for impairment of more surface area of lakes than agricultural land use and around 60% the mileage of streams and rivers as agricultural land use.

“In California, urban land use and construction are responsible for the impairment of more surface area of lakes than agricultural land use and around 60% the mileage of streams and rivers as agricultural land use (Drevno 2018).”

• cites Drevno 2018 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Tangible benefits to local residents include reduced property loss and infrastructure impacts from excessive streambank erosion, increased property values, and the ability to use stormwater as an asset through groundwater recharge or rainwater reuse.

“Reduced property loss and infrastructure impacts from excessive streambank erosion (Hawley et al. 2020), increased property values (Ward et al. 2008;Odefey et al. 2012;Mazzotta et al. 2014), and the ability to use stormwater as an asset through groundwater recharge or rainwater reuse (Odefey et al. 2012;Meng and Hsu 2019) are also tangible benefits to local residents”

• cites Hawley et al. 2020 sourceSupported
• cites Ward et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Odefey et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Urban landscapes tend to have more erosive flow regimes than rural counterparts, with erosion rates about 10 times higher.

“urban landscapes tend to have more erosive flow regimes than their rural counterparts (e.g., erosion rates ~10 × higher; Hawley et al. 2020)”

• cites Hawley et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Increased urban green space from green stormwater infrastructure corresponds to increases in residents' physical and mental health.

“Green stormwater infrastructure can address poor air quality, increase urban green space (with corresponding increases in residents' physical and mental health), and potentially decrease crime while addressing some societal inequity (Ashley et al. 2018;Miller and Montalto 2019;William et al. 2020).”

• cites Ashley et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) describes stormwater green infrastructure as including parks, street trees, and community gardens, and says ecosystem services are essential to human health and well-being. It does not establish that increasing urban green space corresponds to increases in residents’ physical and mental health; the study examines stakeholder perceptions rather than health outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites William et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Green stormwater infrastructure can address poor air quality.

“Green stormwater infrastructure can address poor air quality, increase urban green space (with corresponding increases in residents' physical and mental health), and potentially decrease crime while addressing some societal inequity (Ashley et al. 2018;Miller and Montalto 2019;William et al. 2020).”

• cites Ashley et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourceSupported
• cites William et al. 2020 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Traditional stormwater systems do not always adequately address the rate of stormwater flow and quality, leading to continued problems with erosion and water pollution.

“However, these traditional systems do not always adequately address the rate of stormwater flow and quality, leading to continued problems with erosion and water pollution (Collins et al. 2010;Cappiella et al. 2012).”

• cites Collins et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cappiella et al. 2012 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Ensuring public education and outreach materials focus on stakeholder values and preferences will improve local buy-in and create long-term support for urban stormwater planning and management programs.

“Ensuring public education and outreach materials focus on stakeholder values and preferences will improve local buy-in and create long-term support for urban stormwater planning and management programs (Coleman et al. 2018;Miller and Montalto 2019;McKenzie 2021).”

• cites Coleman et al. 2018 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.4 recommends that outreach pay more attention to residents’ motivations for adopting green stormwater infrastructure and says this may improve stormwater management across scales. It does not establish that values-focused education materials will improve local buy-in or create long-term support for planning and management programs; the citing sentence states those outcomes more definitively than the source does. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourcePartly supported

  In “Beyond Stormwater Management” (page not provided), the paper proposes refocusing GI messaging on locally valued benefits as a way that may increase public support. It also warns that a mismatch between residents’ values and stormwater-focused investments could lead to long-term dissatisfaction. The citing sentence turns those possibilities into a definite claim that education and outreach will improve buy-in and create long-term support, which the paper does not establish. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites McKenzie 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Homes in low-impact development (LID) neighborhoods with large quantities of greenspace and redesigned streets improved stormwater drainage while increasing home prices by 3.5-5% compared to similar homes in non-LID neighborhoods.

“Homes in low-impact development (LID; a form of development that seeks to mimic the natural hydrology of the site) neighborhoods with large quantities of greenspace and redesigned streets improved stormwater drainage while increasing home prices by 3.5-5% compared to similar homes in non-LID neighborhoods (Ward et al. 2008;Mazzotta et al. 2014).”

• cites Ward et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mazzotta et al. 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion describes LID as providing vegetated open space and potential stormwater-retention benefits, while §4.1.2 estimates modest increases in nearby property values under a hypothetical LID scenario. The paper does not report a 3.5–5% home-price increase for LID versus non-LID neighborhoods, nor does it establish that redesigned streets improved drainage in the neighborhoods described. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Low impact development (i.e., green stormwater infrastructure) seeks to best approximate pre-development hydrological conditions, which, if achieved, can effectively address both water quantity and quality.

“Low impact development (i.e., green stormwater infrastructure) seeks to best approximate pre-development hydrological conditions, which, if achieved, can effectively address both water quantity and quality (Cappiella et al. 2012;Odefey et al. 2012).”

• cites Cappiella et al. 2012 sourceSupported
• cites Odefey et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Green stormwater infrastructure can potentially decrease crime.

“Green stormwater infrastructure can address poor air quality, increase urban green space (with corresponding increases in residents' physical and mental health), and potentially decrease crime while addressing some societal inequity (Ashley et al. 2018;Miller and Montalto 2019;William et al. 2020).”

• cites Ashley et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourceCould not verify

  The Knowledge and Perceptions section mentions less crime only as a possible priority that some respondents may not perceive green infrastructure to address. It does not assess whether green stormwater infrastructure could decrease crime. Searches for crime reduction and public safety found no supporting passage in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites William et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Green stormwater infrastructure can address some societal inequity.

“Green stormwater infrastructure can address poor air quality, increase urban green space (with corresponding increases in residents' physical and mental health), and potentially decrease crime while addressing some societal inequity (Ashley et al. 2018;Miller and Montalto 2019;William et al. 2020).”

• cites Ashley et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourceCould not verify

  The Knowledge and Perceptions section describes environmental inequities in Bronx neighborhoods, but does not say green stormwater infrastructure can address them. It instead suggests some respondents may doubt that GI could help overcome structural injustices. The Conclusions discuss increasing GI’s local value, not reducing societal inequity; no page numbers were available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites William et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stormwater standards and preferred BMPs have evolved over the years.

“Stormwater standards and preferred BMPs have evolved over the years (e.g., Roy et al. 2008;Chini et al. 2017).”

• cites Roy et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Chini et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes a twentieth-century gray-stormwater regime and a move toward green-gray systems. Section 5 identifies green infrastructure practices in cities’ current plans, supporting a change in approaches. The paper does not establish that stormwater standards themselves have evolved over the years. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Acknowledging the context dependency of small BMP effectiveness can inform management and lead to mixed approaches such as being used as part of a treatment train and tailored approaches for catchment characteristics and regional climate.

“Acknowledging the context dependency of small BMP effectiveness can inform management and lead to mixed approaches such as being used as part of a treatment train (Sparkman et al. 2017;Read et al. 2019) and tailored approaches for catchment characteristics and regional climate (Askarizadeh et al. 2015;Zhang et al. 2021).”

• cites Sparkman et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Read et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Askarizadeh et al. 2015 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Property value increases from the benefits of open green space associated with LID were site-specific and depended on distance from LID features.

“Mazzotta et al. (2014) found that property value increases from the benefits of open green space associated with LID were site-specific and depended on distance from LID features.”

• cites Mazzotta et al. 2014 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Information gained from maintenance, monitoring, and inspection programs can be tremendously valuable as cities seek to improve their programs and share information with other municipalities to improve region-and nation-wide stormwater quality.

“Information gained from maintenance, monitoring, and inspection programs can be tremendously valuable as cities seek to improve their programs and share information with other municipalities to improve region-and nation-wide stormwater quality (Chini et al. 2017).”

• cites Chini et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Promising options for low-cost monitoring programs may lie in remote sensing, citizen science, inter-departmental collaboration within municipal governments, or collaboration with higher educational institutions.

“Promising options for low-cost monitoring programs may lie in remote sensing (Matejicev et al. 2003;Heasley et al. 2020), citizen science (Cartwright et al. 2015;Shupe 2017;Kielstra et al. 2019), inter-departmental collaboration within municipal governments, or collaboration with higher educational institutions.”

• cites Matejicev et al. 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Heasley et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Section 1.2 says GIS-derived datasets can support river management without survey data, and Section 4.2 says the typology can be updated at relatively low cost. But the paper does not identify remote sensing as a low-cost monitoring option; Section 4.2 also cautions that its typology is not a substitute for detailed surveys and monitoring. The Heasley citation is attached to the remote-sensing option, not the other options in the sentence. (LLM, conf=0.77)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Cartwright et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Citizen participation can aid in maintenance and also encourage stakeholder buy-in.

“Citizen participation can aid in maintenance and also encourage stakeholder buy-in, as was shown to be the case with volunteers who were trained to aid in maintenance of bioswales in New York City, who were then more likely to support additional green stormwater infrastructure and identify its benefits (Miller and Montalto 2019).”

• cites Miller and Montalto 2019 sourcePartly supported

  Study Recruitment describes NYC citizen scientists trained to maintain and monitor green infrastructure, but Group 2 also included people they recruited, not only trained volunteers. The Structured Survey reports that Group 2 more often wanted additional bioswales, and Refocusing GI Programs says they valued bioswale services more highly than other resident groups and suggests citizen involvement could ease maintenance. The paper does not show that training caused volunteers to become more supportive or better able to identify benefits. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Partnerships between the community and the municipality can greatly aid in creating an iterative stormwater management program in which maintenance, monitoring, and inspection are clearly defined in the original stormwater management plan, with private landowners receiving adequate incentive and support to install and maintain BMPs on their property and municipalities forming maintenance and

“Partnerships between the community and the municipality can greatly aid in creating an iterative stormwater management program in which maintenance, monitoring, and inspection are clearly defined in the original stormwater management plan, with private landowners receiving adequate incentive and support to install and maintain BMPs on their property and municipalities forming maintenance and”

• cites Chini et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Fee reductions may be effective in incentivizing BMP installations on private property, but may also exacerbate inequity in certain communities.

“Fee reductions may be effective in incentivizing BMP installations on private property, but may also exacerbate inequity in certain communities”

• cites Fedorchak et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites William et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites William et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Municipal staff in San Juan, Puerto Rico do not currently use citizen calls to monitor urban flooding but would be willing to if a phone application was available that would include time-stamped photos of issues.

“(Ramsey et al. 2019) note that municipal staff in San Juan, Puerto Rico do not currently use citizen calls to monitor urban flooding but would be willing to if a phone application was available that would include time-stamped photos of issues”

• cites Ramsey et al. 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusion says municipal staff would be willing to integrate citizen flood knowledge if an app recorded photographs and time stamps. It also says hotline reports are already used as indicators of suspected infrastructure problems or flood-vulnerable areas, though not as official data. Thus, the claim overstates the extent to which staff do not currently use citizen calls. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Highlighting the tangible local benefits to communities could be most effective at changing stakeholder perceptions even if the overall ecological benefits are small locally and substantial regionally.

“Appealing to a sense of regional community and promoting conservation based on existence value may help but highlighting the tangible local benefits to communities could be most effective and changing stakeholder perceptions even if the overall ecological benefits are small locally and substantial regionally (Coleman et al. 2018;McKenzie 2021).”

• cites Coleman et al. 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract says landowners may be more motivated by on-site and neighborhood stormwater problems than by practices perceived to serve larger areas. Section 4.4 also recommends tailoring outreach to residential motivations. Neither passage establishes that highlighting tangible local benefits is the most effective way to change stakeholder perceptions, or assesses the claimed contrast between small local and substantial regional ecological benefits. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites McKenzie 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The lack of significant ecological improvements may reflect the generally poor understanding of ecological response to any restoration activity.

“but may also reflect the generally poor understanding of ecological response to any restoration activity (Bernhardt et al. 2005;Palmer et al. 2005;Bernhardt and Palmer 2007).”

• cites Bernhardt et al. 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Palmer et al. 2005 sourcePartly supported

  In “Why the need for ecological standards?” (page unavailable), the paper says most restoration projects are not monitored and information about their outcomes is largely inaccessible. Its “No lasting harm” discussion describes a project with little habitat improvement that yielded lessons for future restoration. These passages support a gap in knowledge about river-restoration outcomes, but do not establish that poor understanding explains a general lack of significant ecological improvement across any restoration activity. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Bernhardt and Palmer 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Five key challenges to implementing an effective stormwater management program were identified as beliefs: urban stormwater pollution is minor compared with agricultural sources and unfairly targeted; only downstream communities benefit from local actions; effective stormwater management requires large, expensive projects; maintenance, monitoring, and inspection are overwhelmingly costly and Compp

“We identified five key challenges to implementing an effective stormwater management program as beliefs that: (1) pollution contributed from urban stormwater is minor compared to agricultural sources and is unfairly targeted by regulatory agencies; (2) only downstream communities will benefit from local actions;”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The authors' collective professional experience and feedback from discussions with stormwater professionals are a sufficient basis for identifying the five common challenges.

May combine two claims.

Small-municipality (Phase II) MS4s frequently grapple with several challenges, resulting in a lack of stakeholder buy-in and actionable stormwater management plans.

“However, small-municipality (Phase II) MS4s frequently grapple with several challenges, resulting in a lack of stakeholder buy-in and actionable stormwater management plans.”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · hedged

  “While the implementation of BMPs and MCMs to comply with regulations might appear straightforward, smallmunicipality MS4 permittees frequently grapple with several common challenges faced by government and community stakeholders that result in a lack of actionable stormwater management plans (Fedorchak et al. 2017;Kim and Li 2017).”

• cites Fedorchak et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kim and Li 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

BMPs can create tangible improvements for surrounding communities, such as reduced streambank erosion and flooding.

“BMPs can create tangible improvements for surrounding communities (e.g., reduced streambank erosion and flooding)”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The five challenges were selected from a candidate set identified through literature searches and based on repeated mention during discussions with stakeholders, professionals, and municipal agencies.

“These five challenges are not meant to be an exhaustive list but were identified as part of a candidate set of challenges through literature searches, then selected for further investigation based on their repeated mention during discussions with stakeholders, fellow professionals, and municipal agencies”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The authors' collective professional experience and feedback from discussions with stormwater professionals are a sufficient basis for identifying the five common challenges.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Municipalities and local governments can most effectively address MS4 permit compliance by helping stakeholders move past perceived policy- and implementation-related challenges and confusion to focus on the foundational challenge of regulating diffuse non-point pollution from largely private property within a regulatory system that treats it as a point source.

“We posit that municipalities and local governments can most effectively address MS4 permit compliance by helping stakeholders move past perceived policy-and implementation-related challenges and confusion to instead focus on more foundational challenges related to the task of regulating a diffuse, non-point pollution source of”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The regulatory system treats diffuse, non-point stormwater pollution originating largely from private property as a point source.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The authors' collective professional experience and feedback from discussions with stormwater professionals are a sufficient basis for identifying the five common challenges.

May combine two claims.

These five challenges are encountered by a wide variety of Phase II MS4 permittees and concern confusion about MS4 policies and implementation rather than the central challenge of stormwater regulation.

“five specific challenges are encountered by a wide variety of Phase II MS4 permittees and address confusion regarding MS4-related policies and implementation rather than the central challenge regarding stormwater regulation (discussed above).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The authors' collective professional experience and feedback from discussions with stormwater professionals are a sufficient basis for identifying the five common challenges.

May combine two claims.

The five challenges are universal in nature for Phase II MS4 permittees and can create real barriers for effective stormwater management.

“These challenges are universal in nature for Phase II MS4 permittees and can create real barriers for effective stormwater management.”

May combine two claims.

The central challenge is regulating a diffuse, nonpoint source of pollution (stormwater) using local authority, with little control over large portions of the stormwater source (private properties), and limited funding to implement actions.

“The central challenge is regulating a diffuse, nonpoint source of pollution (i.e., stormwater) using local authority, with little control over large portions of the stormwater source (i.e., private properties), and limited funding to implement actions (Backhaus et al. 2012;Dhakal and Chevalier 2016;Subramanian 2016).”

• cites Backhaus et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dhakal and Chevalier 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Subramanian 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are regulated by NPDES regulations as point sources of pollution.

“Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), however, are regulated by NPDES regulations as point sources of pollution (Schroer 2020).”

• cites Schroer 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Improved understanding of the structure and options within the MS4 program will help small municipalities make informed choices about management plans.

“and improved understanding of the structure and options within the MS4 program will help small municipalities make informed choices about management plans.”

May combine two claims.

These urban stormwater contributions to Chesapeake Bay are biologically relevant and much higher than expected given that urban areas comprise about 8.8% of the bay's drainage area.

“which are biologically relevant amounts and much higher than expected given that urban areas (as defined by the census) comprise about 8.8% of the Chesapeake Bay's drainage area”

• cites United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Loperfido et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites United States Census Bureau 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Urban stormwater contributes 16% of total sediment, 8% of nitrogen, and 15% of phosphorus loads to Chesapeake Bay.

“urban stormwater contributes 16%, 8%, and 15% of the total sediment, N, and P loads to the Chesapeake Bay respectively”

• cites United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Loperfido et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Integrating green infrastructure, retrofits, and maintenance of functioning gray infrastructure as a part of urban renewal initiatives can improve stormwater quantity and quality while potentially lessening the financial burden for municipal residents.

“Thus, integrating green infrastructure, retrofits, and maintenance of functioning gray infrastructure as a part of urban renewal initiatives (e.g., Hawley et al. 2015) can improve stormwater quantity and quality while potentially lessening the financial burden for municipal residents (Montalto et al. 2007;Jarden et al. 2016;Manocha and Babovic 2017).”

• cites Montalto et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jarden et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Manocha and Babovic 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Green infrastructure is an acceptable BMP.

May combine two claims.

Potential co-benefits of water-sensitive urban stormwater designs include maintaining and protecting local water supply, mitigating flooding, resistance to climate change, and increased human well-being.

“Maintaining and protecting local water supply, mitigating flooding (Fletcher et al. 2013), resistance to climate change (Harris 2018), and increased human well-being are potential co-benefits of "water-sensitive" urban stormwater designs (Walsh et al. 2016).”

• cites Fletcher et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Harris 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Walsh et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Eriksson et al. (2007) defined four main groups of BMPs that can be implemented over broad areas: (1) filter strips or swales; (2) infiltration systems (e.g., infiltration basins or trenches); (3) storage facilities (e.g., retention ponds, treatment wetlands; and (4) alternative roads (e.g., porous pavements).

“Eriksson et al. (2007), defined four main groups of BMPs that can be implemented over broad areas: (1) filter strips or swales; (2) infiltration systems (e.g., infiltration basins or trenches); (3) storage facilities (e.g., retention ponds, treatment wetlands; and (4) alternative roads (e.g., porous pavements; Table 1).”

• cites Eriksson et al. (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Addressing public education, outreach, and participation MCMs may aid small municipalities in identifying effective solutions within the community.

“addressing public education, outreach, and participation MCMs may aid small municipalities in identifying effective solutions within the community.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Collaboration between small municipalities through the formation of stormwater coalitions may be another option to reduce costs by developing collective training programs, templates for ordinances and annual reports, public education materials and programs, and group purchasing or contracts of maintenance and good housekeeping measures.

“Collaboration between small municipalities through the formation of stormwater coalitions may be another option to reduce costs by developing collective training programs, templates for ordinances and annual reports, public education materials and programs, and group purchasing or contracts of maintenance and good housekeeping measures (Chaffin et al. 2016;Civian 2018).”

• cites Chaffin et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Civian 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Using technology and stakeholder/citizen programs to gather information can lower costs and improve efficiency of data collection programs.

“Using technology and stakeholder/citizen programs to gather information can lower costs and improve efficiency of data collection programs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Innovative funding approaches are necessary.

“Thus, innovative funding approaches are necessary (National Research Council (NRC) 2009)”

• cites National Research Council (NRC) 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Free-market mechanisms generally work by providing an offset to encourage private landowner actions to increase stormwater uptake on their property or a direct financial incentive to install BMPs on private property.

“Free-market mechanisms generally work by a) providing an offset to encourage private landowner actions to increase stormwater uptake on their property (e.g., a fee reduction for quantity of runoff diverted and infiltrated) or b) a direct financial incentive to install BMPs on private property (e.g., a reverse auction; Thurston et al. 2003;Barbosa et al. 2012;Brown et al. 2016;Nemes et al. 2016).”

• cites Thurston et al. 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Barbosa et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Brown et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Coalitions can be complicated to manage and may lead to limited benefits when municipalities in the coalition have different levels of affluence, community support, and capabilities for utilizing different funding methods that limit consensus.

“Coalitions can be complicated to manage and may lead to limited benefits when municipalities in the coalition have different levels of affluence, community support, and capabilities for utilizing different funding methods that limit consensus.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Stormwater fees can be offset by grant writing, and coalitions can combine resources to diversify their collective portfolio of funding options.

“Stormwater fees can be offset by grant writing, and coalitions can combine resources to diversify their collective portfolio of funding options.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The cost-effectiveness of stormwater utility fees or free-market mechanisms may be the most suitable funding mechanisms when direct funds are not available.

“The cost-effectiveness of stormwater utility fees or freemarket mechanisms (e.g., allowance markets, retrofit auctions) may be the most suitable funding mechanisms when direct funds are not available (Barbosa et al. 2012; University of North Carolina School of Government 2020).”

• cites Barbosa et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites University of North Carolina School of Government 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Creating a utility service akin to services for domestic water and sewer use (or assigning management to an existing utility service) is an option for establishing a stormwater utility fee.

“Creating a utility service akin to services for domestic water and sewer use (or assigning management to an existing utility service) is an option for establishing a stormwater utility fee.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Grants from various sources can also be a source of external funds.

“Grants from various sources can also be a source of external funds”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A phone application with time-stamped photos may prove useful for both flooding and illicit discharge monitoring.

“a solution that may prove useful for both flooding and illicit discharge monitoring.”

May combine two claims.

Lebanon, Pennsylvania is a Phase II MS4 that is experiencing financial hardship due to recent regulatory changes, and though Lebanon is not bankrupt, it is struggling to afford a program it estimates may cost $1.4 million annually.

“Schroer (2020) uses Lebanon, Pennsylvania as an example of a Phase II MS4 that is experiencing financial hardship due to recent regulatory changes, and though Lebanon is not bankrupt, it is struggling to afford a program it estimates may cost $1.4 million annually.”

• cites Schroer 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Frequent areas of non-compliance at a national scale are typically associated with MCMs 3-6, including a lack of an illicit discharge detection and elimination program (or an insufficient one), a lack of inspection at construction sites, no regulatory mechanisms through which to monitor and regulate post-construction runoff BMPs' maintenance and function, or poor housekeeping procedures at municip

“frequent areas of non-compliance at a national scale are typically associated with MCMs 3-6 (Table 2), including a lack of an illicit discharge detection and elimination program (or an insufficient one), a lack of inspection at construction sites, no regulatory mechanisms through which to monitor and regulate post-construction runoff BMPs' maintenance and function, or poor housekeeping procedures”

• cites National Association of Clean Water Agencies 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Funding methods for stormwater management are not mutually exclusive.

“Similarly, funding methods are not mutually exclusive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Grant management and accounting can also increase cost through administrative duties but could be mitigated through partnerships with local conservation agencies or environmental groups.

“Grant management and accounting can also increase cost through administrative duties but could be mitigated through partnerships with local conservation agencies or environmental groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Demonstrating the ecological relevance of urban stormwater, benefits to local stakeholders, flexibility of project size, benefits of monitoring and maintenance, and surmountable funding barriers can prevent stakeholders from fixating on options for non-compliance and lead to effective management programs.

“Demonstrating the ecological relevance of urban stormwater, benefits to local stakeholders, flexibility of project size, benefits of monitoring and maintenance, and surmountable funding barriers can prevent stakeholders from fixating on options for non-compliance and lead to effective management programs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A long-term commitment to project outcomes is required to ensure the partnership is equitable and beneficial to all parties and equally addresses local socio-cultural concerns and broad advancements in stormwater management and science.

“Leveraging expertise can lead to improved outcomes, but a long-term commitment to project outcomes is required to ensure the partnership is equitable and beneficial to all parties and equally addresses local socio-cultural concerns and broad advancements in stormwater management and science (Prosser et al. 2015).”

• cites Prosser et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Both agricultural and urban systems contribute in ecologically meaningful ways to poor water quality through stormwater inputs.

“The key to overcoming this challenge is, in part, to demonstrate that both agricultural and urban systems contribute in ecologically meaningful ways to poor water quality through stormwater inputs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Many small municipalities lack the resources and expertise to address the complex issues involved in the MS4 program in a manner that aligns with their roles as public servants to local communities.

“Many small municipalities lack the resources and expertise to address the complex issues involved in the MS4 program in a manner that aligns with their roles as public servants to local communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Grant-funded programs like the Shepherd Creek program are rare and may be out of reach for many small municipalities.

“Grant-funded programs like the Shepherd Creek program are rare and may be out of reach for many small municipalities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This holistic approach shows the true utility of moving past the five challenges outlined here to form community-based stormwater management plans that are tightly linked to local environmental conditions and existing infrastructure.

“This holistic approach shows the true utility of moving past the five challenges outlined here to form community-based stormwater management plans that are tightly linked to local environmental conditions and existing infrastructure.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Small municipalities require resources through toolkits and partnerships to help find and choose from an appropriate suite of BMPs for their specific situation.

“We posit that small municipalities require resources through toolkits and partnerships to help find and choose from an appropriate suite of BMPs for their specific situation (e.g., Hawley et al. 2017).”

• cites Hawley et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Monitoring needs, funding options, and socio-physical characteristics of any small municipality are unique.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Permittees may need assistance with understanding permits, interpreting project designs from consultants, and creating education and outreach materials to comply with permit requirements.

“Permittees may need assistance with understanding permits, interpreting project designs from consultants, and creating education and outreach materials to comply with permit requirements.”

May combine two claims.

Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Impact Analysis showed that using rain gardens in this area was financially and environmentally favorable relative to expanding traditional gray infrastructure, particularly with homeowners conducting the few hours of maintenance per year necessary for each rain garden.

“Regardless, Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Impact Analysis showed that using rain gardens in this area was financially and environmentally favorable relative to expanding traditional gray infrastructure, particularly with homeowners conducting the few hours of maintenance per year necessary for each rain garden (Vineyard et al. 2015).”

• cites Vineyard et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Partnerships with physical and social science researchers can create new opportunities for active research and teaching about effective stormwater management from a socio-ecological standpoint.

“Partnerships with physical and social science researchers can create new opportunities for active research and teaching about effective stormwater management from a socio-ecological standpoint.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Education and outreach are key to informing stakeholders about commonly encountered challenges.

“Education and outreach are key to informing stakeholders about commonly encountered challenges.”

May combine two claims.

Stormwater is not recognized as a pollutant in a way that allows local governments to unilaterally take management action on private land even though the municipality bears the responsibility for management via the permitting system.

“Stormwater is not recognized as a pollutant in a way that allows local governments to unilaterally take management action on private land even though the municipality bears the responsibility for management via the permitting system (Brown et al. 2016;Dhakal and Chevalier 2017;National Association of Clean Water Agencies 2018).”

• cites Brown et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dhakal and Chevalier 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites National Association of Clean Water Agencies 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Accomplishing these components is no easy feat but can lead to unexpected benefits (e.g., aesthetic improvements, recreational opportunities, increased property values) for many small cities as part of redevelopment and re-envisioning cities.

“Accomplishing these components is no easy feat but can lead to unexpected benefits (e.g., aesthetic improvements, recreational opportunities, increased property values) for many small cities as part of redevelopment and re-envisioning cities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Resources utilized on efforts to avoid compliance will likely lead to additional complications in the future with less resources to address them.

“Resources utilized on efforts to avoid compliance will likely lead to additional complications in the future with less resources to address them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The concepts of spatial structure of ecological, hydrological, and social processes are complex and interdisciplinary.

“These concepts are complex and interdisciplinary, and outreach on these topics need to communicate simple and intuitive messages about spatial patterns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

MS4 programs can be funded in multiple ways.

“MS4 programs are manageable for small municipalities, can be funded in multiple ways, and can result in real, concrete improvements in local communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Persistent challenges rooted in financial and logistical concerns hamper municipalities' abilities to comply with regulations by distracting focus from more foundational challenges regarding treatment of stormwater.

“Persistent challenges rooted in financial and logistical concerns hamper municipalities' abilities to comply with regulations by distracting focus from more foundational challenges regarding treatment of stormwater.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

A substantial need exists for pedagogy research on effective educational approaches for explaining the intersection of human-generated stormwater, surface water ecosystems, and human wellbeing, and for the development of transferable and easily deployable educational tools that can be adapted by managers with little experience with instruction or even public speaking.

“Thus, a substantial need exists for a) pedagogy research on effective educational approaches for explaining the intersection of human-generated stormwater, surface water ecosystems, and human wellbeing and b) the development of transferable and easily deployable educational tools that can be adapted by managers with little experience with instruction or even public speaking.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: MS4 permits give credit to local municipalities for education and outreach activities.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

MS4 programs are manageable for small municipalities.

“MS4 programs are manageable for small municipalities, can be funded in multiple ways, and can result in real, concrete improvements in local communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Highly motivated and talented personnel within local government can create and manage complex coalitions.

“Highly motivated and talented personnel within local government can create and manage complex coalitions”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Coalitions and partnerships can be a valuable tool for addressing all of the challenges.

“Coalitions and partnerships can be a valuable tool for addressing all of the challenges.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Monitoring may be complicated but can provide valuable information that leads to more effective implementation on future phases/projects.

“This example emphasizes that monitoring may be complicated but can provide valuable information that leads to more effective implementation on future phases/projects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

A broad effort on the part of municipal employees, professional consultants, and academics in the social and natural science disciplines to create strategies for dealing with these interdisciplinary problems holds promise for unifying local communities around environmental improvement.

“we believe a broad effort on the part of municipal employees, professional consultants, and academics in the social and natural science disciplines to create strategies for dealing with these interdisciplinary problems holds promise for unifying local communities around environmental improvement.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

MS4 programs can result in real, concrete improvements in local communities.

“MS4 programs are manageable for small municipalities, can be funded in multiple ways, and can result in real, concrete improvements in local communities.”

May combine two claims.

Feedbacks resulting from improving downstream water quality to upstream communities are difficult to communicate, which exacerbates the challenge of gaining stakeholder support for using locally derived resources to benefit downstream ecosystems.

“Feedbacks resulting from improving downstream water quality to upstream communities are difficult to communicate, which exacerbates the challenge of gaining stakeholder support for using locally derived resources (usually money) to benefit downstream ecosystems.”

May combine two claims.

Outreach alone will not solve the problem of stakeholder concerns about stormwater sources, but it can set a foundation demonstrating that managing urban stormwater can produce tangible benefits to water quality.

“Outreach alone will not solve this problem, but it can at least set a foundation demonstrating that managing urban stormwater can produce tangible benefits to water quality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The keys to effective programs are dynamic, creative funding mechanisms, horizontal and interdisciplinary collaboration, effective public education, and careful planning, siting, and execution of BMPs.

“The keys to effective programs are dynamic, creative funding mechanisms, horizontal and interdisciplinary collaboration, effective public education, and careful planning, siting, and execution of BMPs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Effective outreach and education programs targeted towards citizen and local government stakeholders can address concerns about upstream agriculture and the lack of local benefits.

“Effective outreach and education programs targeted towards citizen and local government stakeholders can address concerns about upstream agriculture (1) and the lack of local benefits (2).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Stakeholders advocating for a focus on upstream agricultural stormwater sources are often interested in focusing efforts on systems with a perceived high return on investment.

May combine two claims.

Shuster and Rhea (2013) conducted follow-up monitoring on subcatchment-level runoff volumes following rain barrel and rain garden implementation and found small, yet significant, reductions in storm runoff.

“Shuster and Rhea (2013) conducted follow-up monitoring on subcatchment-level runoff volumes following rain barrel and rain garden implementation and found small, yet significant, reductions in storm runoff.”

• cites Shuster and Rhea 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Socio-political interactions at the municipality level can be difficult to manage depending on the leadership structure of the municipality.

“Similarly, socio-political interactions at the municipality level can be difficult to manage depending on the leadership structure of the municipality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Criticisms about and confusion surrounding funding, implementation, and environmental effect of NPDES Phase II MS4 regulations are legitimate.

“criticisms about and confusion surrounding funding, implementation, and environmental effect are legitimate”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Support for small municipalities must combine technical expertise and education and outreach to address complex systems affecting green infrastructure integration.

“Support must combine technical expertise and education and outreach to address complex systems such as how site suitability (physical characteristics, parcel ownership, etc.), location within a watershed, connectivity to other BMPs and existing green spaces all affect the logistics and cost-effectiveness of green infrastructure integration (Malinowski et al. 2018).”

• cites Malinowski et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Monitoring needs, funding options, and socio-physical characteristics of any small municipality are unique.