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Cited by 234Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorInfant Health and DevelopmentAttachment and Relationship Dynamics

The human parental brain: In vivo neuroimaging

Open access
Swain, James E.·2011·Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry
DOI 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.10.017PMC PMC4329016
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Abstract

Interacting parenting thoughts and behaviors, supported by key brain circuits, critically shape human infants’ current and future behavior. Indeed, the parent–infant relationship provides infants with their first social environment, forming templates for what they can expect from others, how to interact with them and ultimately how they go on to themselves to be parents. This review concentrates on magnetic resonance imaging experiments of the human parent brain, which link brain physiology with parental thoughts and behaviors. After reviewing brain imaging techniques, certain social cognitive and affective concepts are reviewed, including empathy and trust—likely critical to parenting. Following that is a thorough study-by-study review of the state-of-the-art with respect to human neuroimaging studies of the parental brain—from parent brain responses to salient infant stimuli, including emotionally charged baby cries and brief visual stimuli to the latest structural brain studies. Taken together, this research suggests that networks of highly conserved hypothalamic–midbrain–limbic–paralimbic–cortical circuits act in concert to support parental brain responses to infants, including circuits for limbic emotion response and regulation. Thus, a model is presented in which infant stimuli activate sensory analysis brain regions, affect corticolimbic limbic circuits that regulate emotional response, motivation and reward related to their infant, ultimately organizing parenting impulses, thoughts and emotions into coordinated behaviors as a map for future studies. Finally, future directions towards integrated understanding of the brain basis of human parenting are outlined with profound implications for understanding and contributing to long term parent and infant mental health.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes in vivo MRI/fMRI studies of the human parental brain, arguing that infant cues engage conserved hypothalamic–midbrain–limbic–paralimbic–cortical circuits for emotion, motivation, reward, and regulation. It presents a model in which sensory appraisal, corticolimbic modules, and hormonal/behavioral outputs coordinate parenting thoughts and behaviors.

Key findings

  • Across reviewed fMRI studies, own vs other infant cry/picture/video contrasts repeatedly activate drive/motivation and limbic regions (midbrain, striatum, amygdala, insula, cingulate, hypothalamus) alongside cortical regulatory regions (medial prefrontal, orbitofrontal, anterior cingulate). For example, Lorberbaum et al. (1999) studied 4 mothers with a 30-s standard cry vs control and found increased subgenual anterior cingulate and right mesial prefrontal/orbitofrontal cortex; a follow-up with 10 breastfeeding first-time mothers, infants 1–2 months old, using random effects, activated anterior and posterior cingulate, thalamus, midbrain, hypothalamus, septal regions, dorsal and ventral striatum, medial prefrontal cortex, right orbitofrontal/insula/temporal polar cortex, right lateral temporal cortex, and fusiform gyrus, with amygdala active when cry was compared with rest.
  • Parental experience/time and gender/experience modulate responses: Swain et al. found first-time mothers (n=9) at 2–4 weeks postpartum showed own vs other baby cry activations in midbrain, basal ganglia, cingulate, amygdala, and insula; at 3–4 months, amygdala and insula activations were not evident and activity shifted to medial prefrontal and hypothalamic regions. Seifritz et al. (2003), studying four groups of 10 subjects each (mothers and fathers of children under age 3, and non-parent males and females) with 6-s sounds, found baby cry/laugh vs neutral produced bilateral temporal activity; women showed decreased subgenual anterior cingulate activity to cry/laugh; parents activated more to infant crying than laughing in right amygdala, while non-parents responded more to laughing than crying.
  • Visual infant stimuli engage reward/emotion and social-cognition circuits: Bartels and Zeki, in 20 healthy mothers viewing own vs other child, found increased midbrain periaqueductal gray/substantia nigra, dorsal and ventral striatum, thalamus, left insula, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and superior medial prefrontal cortex, with decreased left amygdala. Strathearn et al. studied 28 healthy right-handed mothers at 7–17 months postpartum and found own infant face activated ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra, striatum, medial prefrontal/anterior cingulate/insula, dorsolateral prefrontal, and primary motor areas; happy own-infant faces activated nigrostriatal regions including substantia nigra and dorsal putamen. In 30 first-time mothers, secure attachment showed greater ventral striatum and hypothalamus/pituitary activation and higher peripheral oxytocin responses, while insecure/dismissing mothers showed greater insular activation to own infant sad faces.
  • Structural and early-life findings: Kim et al. reported mothers with higher perceived maternal care in childhood had greater cry responses in middle and superior frontal gyri and higher gray matter volume in superior and middle frontal gyri, orbital gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, and fusiform gyrus; lower maternal care was associated with increased hippocampal activations. The review’s model centers on feedback loops involving hypothalamus, midbrain, basal ganglia, anterior cingulate, prefrontal cortex, and thalamus, with frontal, insular, fusiform, and occipital areas for more complex social-emotional/empathy responses.

Methods

  • Design: narrative review of in vivo MRI/fMRI experiments of the human parent brain, plus a selective review of social cognition/affect (empathy, trust, attachment) and animal parenting literature; no new primary data are reported.
  • Data/sample: published studies with parents as subjects using infant cry, laughter, pictures, or videos, and structural voxel-based morphometry studies; Tables 1 and 2 summarize baby sound and visual stimulus studies. Reported findings satisfy fixed effects at p<0.001 or random effects at p<0.05.
  • Analysis: study-by-study synthesis grouped by audio-only baby cry and visual stimuli; contrasts own vs other/control, correlations with parenting behavior, mood, attachment, and hormones; a model is presented in Fig. 1.

Limitations

  • Paper-stated: baby stimuli are only partially realistic; subjects have limited response possibilities during imaging; brain activity can only be compared across time points if the same stimuli are used, while the actual baby and parent–infant relationship are complex “moving targets”; early studies had limited subject numbers and fixed-effects analyses that do not account for inter-subject variability and require replication.
  • Paper-stated gaps: postpartum depression, anxiety, and substance abuse had not yet been studied with a single published fMRI study at the time of writing, although several groups were close; many cited findings are preliminary, abstract-only, or in press.
  • Evident from the text: this is not a systematic meta-analysis; studies are heterogeneous in stimuli (cry vs picture vs video; 6-s vs 30-s), postpartum timing, sample sizes, and analysis methods, limiting direct comparison; some studies lack direct parent vs non-parent contrasts (e.g., Seifritz et al. reported within-group results only).

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.10.017

Cites

111 of 111 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 117 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Only one study has shown a direct correlation between own baby cry response and depression in medial frontal cortex.

    “Only one study with direct correlation between own baby cry response and depression in medial frontal cortex.”
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    • cites Swain et al. (2008) source

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  • Findingcitation

    Attachment style and reflective function has been formally assessed in one imaging study so far showing direct correlation with insula response to own infant face.

    “Attachment style and reflective function has only been formally assessed in one imaging study so far showing direct correlation with insula response to own infant face.”
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    • cites Lenzi et al. (2008) source

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  • Findingcitation

    There is strong evidence from many studies using picture and cry response data that own versus other brain activity is significant.

    “There is strong evidence from many studies using picture and cry response data that own vs. other brain activity is significant.”
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    • cites Bartels and Zeki, 2004b

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    • cites Kim et al., 2010a

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    • cites Kim et al., 2010c

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  • Interpretationreasoning

    Two overlapping regions between empathy systems and parental brain responses are the cingulate and insular cortices.

    “Two of these overlapping regions are the cingulate and insular cortices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Empathy systems overlap significantly with brain responses of parents to infant stimuli.

    “These empathy systems seem to overlap significantly with brain responses of parents to infant stimuli reviewed in this paper.”
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  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

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    Findingcitation

    Mothers and fathers have been grouped together to look for common parental brain responses suggesting commonalities across sex.

    “Mothers and fathers have been grouped together to look for common parental brain responses suggesting commonalities across sex.”
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    • cites Seifritz et al. (2003) source

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    • cites Swain et al. (in press)

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    Findingcitation

    Related measures of early-life experience correlate with brain cortical structure and function, supporting the importance of attachment style for parental brain and behavior.

    “Related measures of early-life experience correlate with brain cortical structure and function, supporting the importance of attachment style for parental brain and behavior.”
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    • cites Kim et al. (2010c)

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    Interpretationreasoning

    A model in which infant stimuli activate sensory analysis brain regions, affect corticolimbic circuits that regulate emotional response, motivation and reward related to their infant, and ultimately organize parenting impulses, thoughts and emotions into coordinated behaviors.

    “affect corticolimbic limbic circuits that regulate emotional response, motivation and reward related to their infant, ultimately organizing parenting impulses, thoughts and emotions into coordinated behaviors as a map for future studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Both experiencing pain and experiencing the pain of a loved one activated the insula and anterior cingulate, with the latter activating relatively more anterior regions of these structures.

    “Specifically, both experiencing pain and experiencing the pain of a loved one activated the insula and anterior cingulate with the latter activating relatively more anterior regions of these structures.”
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    • cites Singer et al., 2004 source

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    Premisecitation

    Decoupled yet parallel representations of empathy in cortical structures such as the insula and anterior cingulate are postulated to be necessary for empathic abilities to mentalize.

    “Such decoupled yet parallel representations of empathy in cortical structures such as the insula and anterior cingulate have been postulated to be necessary for our empathic abilities to mentalize, that is, to understand the thoughts, beliefs, and intentions of others in relation to ourselves”
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    Premisecitation

    The insula is an important center for integrating across emotional and cognitive information.

    “The insula has also been raised as an important center for integrating across emotional and cognitive information”
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    • cites Carr et al., 2003 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    In addition to registering physical pain, anterior cingulate may also be an important circuit in thinking about a range of emotional signals, including social pain, social rejection, or stimuli of one's child or romantic love, involving coordinated shifts in attention, decision-making, memory, mood regulation, and directed behavior.

    “Thus, in addition to registering physical pain, anterior cingulate may also be an important circuit in thinking about a range of emotional signals (including social pain such as in witnessing the pain of a loved one, social rejection, or stimuli of one’s child or romantic love), involving coordinated shifts in attention, decision-making, memory, mood regulation, and directed behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Study design and conductnone given

    All findings reported in the review satisfy the criteria of fixed effects at p<0.001, or random effects at p<0.05.

    “Statistical methods vary across studies, but all findings reported here satisfy the criteria of fixed effects at p<0.001, or random effects at p<0.05.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Women as a group including parents and non-parents, but not males, had a decrease in activity in response to both baby cry and laughter in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex.

    “They also reported that women as a group including, parents and non-parents (but not males), had a decrease in activity in response to both baby cry and laughter in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex.”
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    • cites Seifritz et al., 2003 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Gender-dependent correlates of neural activity in amygdala and anterior cingulate may reflect neural predispositions in women for responses to preverbal infant vocalizations, whereas gender-independent similarity of activation patterns in posterior and anterior cingulate reflects relatively sensory-based and cognitive levels of neural processing.

    “Perhaps the gender-dependent correlates of neural activity in amygdala and anterior cingulate reflect neural predispositions in women for responses to preverbal infant vocalizations, whereas the gender-independent similarity of activation patterns in posterior and anterior cingulate reflects the relatively sensory-based and cognitive levels of neural processing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Within-group analyses showed that parents activated more to infant crying than laughing in the right amygdala, while non-parent response was greater for infant laughing than crying.

    “Finally, within-group analyses showed that parents activated more to infant crying than laughing in the right amygdala, while non-parent response was greater for infant laughing then crying (Seifritz et al., 2003).”
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    Study design and conductreasoning

    The reviewed experiments have limitations including only partial realism of baby stimuli, limited response possibilities of subjects while being imaged, and inherent methodological problems in comparing brain activity across time points if the same stimuli are not used.

    “These limitations include the only partial realism of baby stimuli, limited response possibilities of subjects as they are being imaged as well as the inherent methodological problems in which brain activity can only be compared across time points if the same stimuli”
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    Premisecitation

    Activation of the fusiform gyrus is interesting because this structure has been implicated in human face and voice recognition along with related social cognitions that might be impaired in autism.

    “Activation of the fusiform gyrus is interesting because this structure has been implicated in human face and voice recognition along with related social cognitions that might be impaired in autism”
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    Premisecitation

    Both conditions led to bilateral activation of the amygdala, insula and auditory cortex with a right-hemisphere advantage in the amygdala, and larger activation during laughing than crying in the auditory cortex with a slight right-hemisphere advantage for laughing.

    “Both conditions led to bilateral activation of the amygdala, insula and auditory cortex with a right-hemisphere advantage in the amygdala, and larger activation during laughing than crying in the auditory cortex with a slight right-hemisphere advantage for laughing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sander et al., 2003 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    These within-group results suggest a potential change in amygdala function with being a parent, although there was no direct comparison of parents to non-parents.

    “These within-group results suggest a potential change in amygdala function with being a parent, although there was no direct comparison of parents to non-parents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    Certain brain regions, including the amygdala, activate to emotionally meaningful sounds like laughing and crying independent of the emotional involvement, suggesting the pattern recognition aspect of these sounds is crucial for this activation and that emotional valence might be represented elsewhere in the brain.

    “These results suggest that certain brain regions, including the amygdala, activate to emotionally meaningful sounds like laughing and crying independent of the emotional involvement, suggesting the pattern recognition aspect of these sounds is crucial for this activation and that emotional valence might be represented elsewhere in the brain”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Infant laughing and crying stimuli versus a control sound activated the amygdala and anterior cingulate of women, while the control stimuli elicited stronger activations in men.

    “Sander and colleagues also report a striking gender effect with infant laughing and crying stimuli vs. a control sound activating the amygdala and anterior cingulate of women, while the control stimuli elicited stronger activations in men.”
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    • cites Sander et al., 2007 source

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    Premisecitation

    In Lorberbaum et al. (2002), 10 healthy breastfeeding first-time mothers with infants 1-2 months old showed activated regions including anterior and posterior cingulate, thalamus, midbrain, hypothalamus, septal regions, dorsal and ventral striatum, medial prefrontal cortex, right orbitofrontal/insula/temporal polar cortex region, and right lateral temporal cortex and fusiform gyrus in response to

    “Activated regions included the anterior and posterior cingulate, thalamus, midbrain, hypothalamus, septal regions, dorsal and ventral striatum, medial prefrontal cortex, right orbitofrontal/insula/temporal polar cortex region, and right lateral temporal cortex and fusiform gyrus.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lorberbaum et al., 2002 source

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    Premisecitation

    In recent human studies, oxytocin has been connected with parent-infant behavior, as measured in serum and saliva, and across gender.

    “In recent human studies, it has specifically been connected with parent–infant behavior, as measured in both serum and saliva (Feldman et al., 2010a) and across gender (Feldman et al., 2010b).”
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    Premisecitation

    In 20 healthy mothers, viewing own child versus other children increased activity in midbrain, dorsal/ventral striatum, thalamus, left insula, OFC, anterior cingulate, superior medial prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, left fusiform, left occipital cortex, and decreased left amygdala.

    “They measured brain activity in 20 healthy mothers while viewing still face photographs of their own child compared to age-matched photographs of other children. There was increased activity in the midbrain (periaqueductal gray and substantia nigra regions), dorsal and ventral striatum, thalamus, left insula, ORC, sub-, pre-, and supra-genual anterior cingulate, and superior medial prefrontal cort”
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    • cites Bartels and Zeki, 2004b

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    Premisecitation

    Mothers were significantly more preoccupied than fathers in connected parenting interview data, consistent with relative activations for mothers compared with fathers in the amygdala and basal ganglia.

    “Preliminary analysis of connected parenting interview data shows that mothers were significantly more preoccupied than fathers, which was consistent with the relative activations for mothers compared with fathers in the amygdala and basal ganglia (Swain et al., 2004b).”
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    Premisecitation

    Activity in left insula-putamen-globus pallidus correlated with trait affect intensity, whereas limbic and cortical regions correlated with length of time in love.

    “Finally, activity in the left insula-putamenglobus pallidus correlated with trait affect intensity, whereas activity in limbic and cortical regions, including insula, cingulate parietal, inferior temporal and middle temporal cortex was correlated with the length of time in love.”
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    Premisenone given

    Parent response to own versus other baby picture correlates with parent behaviors from videotapes, with activations in superior temporal lobe, OFC and ventral tegmental areas.

    “Correlations between parent response to own vs. other baby picture and parent behaviors attained from videotapes of interactions with their infant reveals activations in superior temporal lobe, OFC and ventral tegmental areas, may be key to understanding the regulation of parental motivation and reward associated with baby-directed empathy, approach and caring behaviors as well as social bonding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Romantic love uses subcortical motivation and reward systems to focus thoughts and behaviors on a specific individual, while limbic cortical regions process individual emotional factors.

    “Taken together, these studies suggest that romantic love uses subcortical motivation and reward systems to focus thoughts and behaviors on a specific individual, while limbic cortical regions process individual emotional factors.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Activation of these regions may reflect an increase in arousal and obsessive/anxiety circuits that may be temporarily more active for parents and persistently sensitive with some mental illnesses.

    “Activation of these regions may reflect an increase in arousal, obsessive/anxiety circuits that may be normally temporarily more active for parents and persistently sensitive with some mental illnesses (Swain et al., 2007).”
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    Premisecitation

    Regional activity between anatomically connected brain areas is simultaneously active during movie viewing.

    “Finally, regional activity between brain areas that are known to be anatomically connected have been shown to be simultaneously active during movie viewing (Bartels and Zeki, 2005).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Differences between studies may be explained by use of older children, cognitive task interactions, child photo affective expressions, and sample population differences.

    “This may be explained by the use of much older children, which might involve a different set of circuits relevant to those particular relationships.”
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    Premisecitation

    Lenzi et al. (2008) found mirror neuron system including insula and amygdala more active during emotional expressions from mother's own child, and insula response correlates with maternal reflective function.

    “They found that the mirror neuron system, including insula and amygdala were more active during emotional expressions from a mother’s own child, and that insula response correlates with maternal reflective function, conceptualized as a measure of empathy.”
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    Premisecitation

    Visual cortex areas discriminated between own and unfamiliar infants but were unrelated to mood ratings.

    “In contrast, areas of visual cortex that also discriminated between own and unfamiliar infants were unrelated to mood ratings (Nitschke et al., 2004).”
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    Premisecitation

    Baby joy expressions across identity evoked mostly right limbic and paralimbic areas, whereas ambiguous expressions elicited left-sided high order cognitive and motor areas.

    “They also reported that baby joy expressions across identity evoked mostly right limbic and paralimbic areas important to emotional processing, whereas ambiguous expressions elicited responses in left-sided high order cognitive and motor areas, logically reflecting associated cognitive effort.”
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    Premisecitation

    Peripheral oxytocin responses to infant contact provocations at 7 months were significantly higher in secure mothers and positively correlated with brain activation in ventral striatum and hypothalamus/pituitary.

    “Peripheral oxytocin responses to infant contact provocations at 7 months were also significantly higher in secure mothers, and positively correlated with brain activation in both regions.”
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    • cites Strathearn et al., 2009 source

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    Premisecitation

    Strathearn et al. (2008) reported dopamine-associated reward-processing regions activated when mothers viewed own infant's face versus unknown, including VTA/substantia nigra and striatum, plus frontal lobe responses.

    “They reported that dopamine-associated reward-processing regions of the brain were activated when mothers viewed their own infant’s face compared with an unknown infant’s face. These included the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra regions, the striatum. In addition, there were frontal lobe responses in emotion processing (medial prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and insula cortex), cognition (d”
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    Premisecitation

    Brain structure as well as functional responses to baby cry vary according to a measure of perceived maternal quality.

    “First, this study attempts to address the effects of early-life events on later parenting, as elaborated in rodent and non-human primate models (Champagne, 2010; Kaffman and Meaney, 2007; Veenema, 2009), brain structure as well as functional responses to baby cry vary according to a measure of perceived maternal quality (Kim et al., 2010c).”
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    • cites Kim et al., 2010c

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Careful use of a variety of baby stimuli can activate parent brains across identity and affect, and such responses correlate with psychometrics of parenting, mood, anxiety and attachment parameters as well as hormonal milieus.

    “It now appears that careful use of a variety of baby stimuli can be used to activate parent brains across identity and affect. Furthermore, such responses correlate with psychometrics of parenting, mood, anxiety and attachment parameters as well as across sensibly across hormonal milieus.”
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    Premisecitation

    Brain structure changes with environmental demands of learning to juggle or studying over a few months.

    “This is perhaps not surprising, given that brain structure changes with the environmental demands of learning to juggle (Draganski et al., 2004) or studying (Draganski et al., 2006) over a few months.”
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    Premisecitation

    Noriuchi et al. found correlations in OFC with own baby-response and happiness as well as to own distressed baby response in superior temporal regions.

    “They also found correlations in OFC with own baby-response and happiness as well as to their own distressed baby response in the superior temporal regions.”
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    Premisecitation

    Intensity with which subjects perceive different features in a movie correlated with activity in separate brain areas.

    “Also, the intensity with which subjects perceive different features in a movie (color, faces, language, and human bodies) was correlated with activity in separate brain areas (Bartels and Zeki, 2004a).”
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    Interpretationcitation

    These cognitive regions allow accurate modeling of the baby's mind to predict their needs and plan behavior.

    “These regions might allow accurate modeling of the baby’s mind to predict their needs and plan behavior (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004; Decety and Grezes, 2006; Pelphrey et al., 2004; Saxe, 2006a).”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Key parenting sensory signals, including cry, visual, touch, and smell from the baby, are organized in sensory cortices that appraise the input and interact with subcortical memory and motivation structures.

    “First, key parenting sensory signals, including cry, visuals as well as touch and smell from baby (A), must be organized in sensory cortices which appraise the input and interact with subcortical memory and motivation structures (B).”
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    • cites Swain et al., 2007 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Cognitive circuits are brought online in the parent brain, including inferior frontal, insular, and superior-temporoparietal cortical regions.

    “In addition, (ii) cognitive circuits would be brought online in the parent brain, including those that regulate “mirroring”, empathy, planning and further cognitive flexibility, including the inferior frontal, insular and superior–temporoparietal cortical regions.”
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    Premisenone given

    A growing body of evidence from naturalistic longitudinal studies attests to adverse impact of postpartum depression, with depressed mothers less sensitively attuned, less affirming and more negative in describing their infant.

    “A growing body of evidence from naturalistic longitudinal studies attests to an adverse impact of postpartum depression, with depressed mothers less sensitively attuned to their infants, less affirming and more negative in describing their infant.”
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    Premisecitation

    Postpartum depression follows 10% to 15% of all deliveries and more than 60% of patients have onset within first 6 weeks postpartum.

    “Postpartum depression follows 10% to 15% of all deliveries (Caplan et al., 1989) and more than 60% of patients have an onset of symptoms within the first 6 weeks postpartum (Stowe and Nemeroff, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Caplan et al., 1989 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Stowe and Nemeroff, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Baby pictures and cries can be used to selectively activate brain circuits related to arousal, mood, and social and habitual behaviors according to identity and affect of baby, as well as group differences such as parental status, early-life experience, delivery, etc.

    “Clearly, baby pictures and cries can be used to selectively activate brain circuits related to arousal, mood, and social and habitual behaviors according to identity and affect of baby, as well as and group differences such as parental status, early-life experience, delivery, etc.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Infants of control, anxious and depressed mothers had poorer outcomes at 9 months postpartum, with diminished social engagement, maturity of regulatory behaviors and more emotionality, and increased cortisol reactivity.

    “In another recent study (Feldman et al., 2009), infants of control, anxious and depressed mothers were compared with respectively poorer outcomes at 9 months postpartum. Social engagement, maturity of regulatory behaviors and more emotionality were all diminished by mood and anxiety, with associated increases in cortisol reactivity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Feldman et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    More complex planning and social emotional/empathy responses may involve frontal, insular, fusiform and occipital areas.

    “More complex planning and social emotional/empathy responses may involve frontal, insular, fusiform and occipital areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Postpartum depression, anxiety and substance abuse have received much less investigative attention and not yet a single published fMRI study.

    “These common problems, including pre-term delivery, postpartum depression and anxiety and substance abuse have received much less investigative attention and not yet a single published fMRI study (Squire and Stein, 2003), although several groups are close.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Squire and Stein, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The parental brain model centers on feedback loops involving hypothalamus, midbrain, basal ganglia, anterior cingulate, prefrontal cortex, and thalamus, all requiring motivation and reward.

    “This appears to center on the feedback loops involving hypothalamus, midbrain, basal ganglia regions, anterior cingulate, prefrontal cortex, and thalamus—all requiring motivation and reward.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Corticolimbic modules include reflexive caring impulses, cognitive circuits, and alarm/emotion-preoccupation anxiety systems.

    “Ultimately, sufficient motivation will activate corticolimbic modules (C), that have delineated as (i) reflexive caring impulses, such as those studied in preclinical animal models and requiring little or no cortical input such as licking, grooming and nursing in which the hypothalamus, MPOA, and other limbic and thalamocingulate circuits are of primary importance (Numan and Insel, 2003).”
    • Also stated in: § 7. Summary and model · hedged
      “In addition, (ii) cognitive circuits would be brought online in the parent brain, including those that regulate “mirroring”, empathy, planning and further cognitive flexibility, including the inferior frontal, insular and superior–temporoparietal cortical regions.”
    • Also stated in: § 7. Summary and model · hedged
      “Finally, (iii) other alarm/ emotion–preoccupation anxiety systems might be activated to increase arousal and regulate parental worries and habitual responses in coordination with memory systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The output feeds back to sensory systems during dynamic interactions with the infant to generate new input from the baby.

    “The output would also feed back to sensory systems (B) during dynamic interactions with the infant to generate new input from baby (A).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The parental brain undergoes adaptive plastic changes associated with postpartum and is strongly affected by the baby.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The reflexive, cognitive, and emotional modules interact in parental love and attachment formation and work together to generate coordinated hormonal, autonomic, and behavioral output required for parenting via motor cortex and hypothalamus.

    “These reflexive, cognitive and emotional modules would interact with each other in the experience of parental love and attachment formation, and work together to generate coordinated hormonal, autonomic and behavioral output required for parenting (D) via motor cortex and hypothalamus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The parental brain undergoes adaptive plastic changes associated with postpartum and is strongly affected by the baby.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Other important aspects of parenting may be regulated by context and memory processing regions including hippocampus, parahippocampus and amygdala.

    “Other important aspects of parenting may be regulated by context and memory processing regions including the hippocampus, parahippocampus and amygdala.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Alarm/emotion-preoccupation anxiety systems are activated to increase arousal and regulate parental worries and habitual responses in coordination with memory systems.

    “Finally, (iii) other alarm/ emotion–preoccupation anxiety systems might be activated to increase arousal and regulate parental worries and habitual responses in coordination with memory systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The human parental brain is a discrete set of interacting brain circuits that serve as substrate for transition to parenting, integrate baby and internal information, and support key thoughts and behaviors to identify and react to baby stimuli.

    “The human parental brain is the concept of a discrete set of interacting brain circuits that serve as substrate for the human transition to parenting, integrate baby as well as internal information, and support key thoughts and behaviors for us to identify and react to baby stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Current circumstances such as delivery and breastfeeding, and early-life experience, modify brain function in response to infant stimuli, with brain imaging evidence.

    “Other critical factors to be added include current circumstances such as delivery and breastfeeding, early-life experience for which we have brain imaging evidence of modifying brain function in response to infant stimuli (Kim et al., 2010a; Kim et al., 2010c; Swain et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kim et al., 2010a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kim et al., 2010c

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Swain et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The parental brain undergoes adaptive plastic changes associated with postpartum and is strongly affected by the baby.
54 of 54

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The parent–infant relationship provides infants with their first social environment and forms templates for what they can expect from others, how to interact, and how they go on to be parents.

    “The parent–infant relationship provides infants with their first social environment, forming templates for what they can expect from others, how to interact with them and ultimately how they go on to themselves to be parents.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Parental wellness, and/or the presence of other attuned care giving adults, has long-term positive effects on resiliency and emotional well-being of children as they grow up and for decades later.

    “Clearly, parental wellness (and/or the presence of other attuned care giving adults) has long term positive effects on resiliency and emotional well-being of children as they grow up and for decades later.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Different populations may process infant cues in different ways.

    “Perhaps different populations may process infant cues in different ways.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The anterior cingulate is key to parenting.

    “certain cortical structures such as the anterior cingulate that are postulated as key to parenting”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The parental brain undergoes adaptive plastic changes associated with postpartum and is strongly affected by the baby.

    “The parental brain is also a moving target, subject to adaptive plastic changes associated with postpartum, so richly affected by the baby.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The parent–infant bond is central to the human condition, contributes to risks for mood and anxiety disorders, and has potential for resiliency and protection against the development of psychopathology throughout life.

    “The parent–infant bond is so central to the human condition, contributes to risks for mood and anxiety disorders, and the potential for resiliency and protection against the development of psychopathology throughout life, not to mention the far-reaching aspects of human attachment across individual behaviors and between cultures.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Researchers have identified a series of hypothalamic-midbrain-limbic-paralimbic-cortical brain circuits that are selectively activated during times when the maternal brain is 'switched-on' by baby-cries.

    “Subsequently, researchers have identified a series of hypothalamic-midbrain-limbic-paralimbic-cortical brain circuits that are selectively activated during times when the maternal brain is ‘switched-on’ by baby-cries (4).”

    From Neuroendocrinology of Parental Response to Baby‐Cry (2011) · cites this paper as [4]

  • In several human fMRI studies, responses to own- versus other-baby stimuli of first-time mothers during the early postpartum period show increased brain activity in several regions, including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), midbrain, striatum, cingulate, amygdala and insula.

    “In several human fMRI studies, responses to own- versus other-baby stimuli of first-time mothers during this early postpartum period show increased brain activity in several regions, including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), midbrain, striatum, cingulate, amygdala and insula (4,5,8,9,19,20).”

    From Neuroendocrinology of Parental Response to Baby‐Cry (2011) · cites this paper as [4]

  • Neuroimaging studies suggest that central opioid system activations overlap with central maternal activations in the mesocorticolimbic circuitry.

    “Although the association between the EO and maternal brain responses remains unknown in humans using direct hormone measurements, neuroimaging studies suggest that central opioid system activations (62) overlap with central maternal activations (4,5) in the mesocorticolimbic circuitry.”

    From Neuroendocrinology of Parental Response to Baby‐Cry (2011) · cites this paper as [4]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Attachment assessment attributed to only one imaging study

    Minor

    The table says attachment style was formally assessed in only one imaging study, Lenzi et al. (2008). The review also describes Strathearn et al. (2009) using the Adult Attachment Interview to compare mothers with secure and insecure attachment.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. Strathearn, 2005, An fMRI study of maternal mentalization: having the baby's mind in mind, Neuroimage, 26, S25
  2. Swain, 2004, Neural substrates and psychology of human parent–infant attachment in the postpartum, Biol Psychiatry, 55, 153S
  3. Swain, 2005, Early human parent–infant bond development: fMRI, thoughts and behaviors, Biol Psychiatry, 57, 112S
  4. Swain, 2006, Own baby pictures induce parental brain activations according to psychology, experience and postpartum timing, Biol Psychiatry, 59, 126S
  5. Swain JE, Leckman JF, Mayes LCRF, Hoyt E, Kang K, Kim P, David D, Nguyen S, Constable R T, Schultz RT. Functional brain activations of parents listening to their own baby-cry change over the early postpartum. Developmental Psychobiology. In press.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Swain, J. E.
Affiliations
University of Michigan (US)
Corresponding author
Swain, James E.
ORCID
Swain, James E.
Venue
Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2011-07
Volume
35
Issue
5
Pages
1242-1254
ISSN
0278-5846 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.10.017
PMC
PMC4329016
OpenAlex
W1998962587
Semantic Scholar
6c9097a766f3144ab60e1b42ff140b238ee5b392
Cited by
234
References
111
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 14
FWCI
15.74
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • Institute for Research on Unlimited Love (unlimitedloveinstitute.org)
  • National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression (narsad.org)
  • Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation
  • Yale Center for Risk, Resilience and Recovery
  • Associates of the Yale Child Study Center
  • Department of Psychiatry of the University of Michigan
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Infant Health and Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords
parenting, parent-infant relationship, empathy, trust, reward, motivation, social cognition, affective neuroscience
MeSH terms
Brain, Female, Humans, Infant, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Parents, Photic Stimulation, Infant Behavior, Neuroimaging

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