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Cited by 460Face Recognition and PerceptionNeuroendocrine regulation and behaviorInfant Health and Development

What’s in a smile? Maternal brain responses to infant facial cues

Open access
Strathearn, Lane, Li, Jian, Fonagy, Peter, Montague, P. Read·2008·Pediatrics
DOI 10.1542/peds.2007-1566PMC PMC2597649
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Abstract

OBJECTIVES. Our goal was to determine how a mother's brain responds to her own infant's facial expressions, comparing happy, neutral, and sad face affect. METHODS. In an event-related functional MRI study, 28 first-time mothers were shown novel face images of their own 5- to 10-month-old infant and a matched unknown infant. Sixty unique stimuli from 6 categories (own-happy, own-neutral, own-sad, unknown-happy, unknown-neutral, and unknown-sad) were presented randomly for 2 seconds each, with a variable 2- to 6-second interstimulus interval. RESULTS. Key dopamine-associated reward-processing regions of the brain were activated when mothers viewed their own infant's face compared with an unknown infant's face. These included the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra regions, the striatum, and frontal lobe regions involved in (1) emotion processing (medial prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and insula cortex), (2) cognition (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), and (3) motor/behavioral outputs (primary motor area). Happy, but not neutral or sad own-infant faces, activated nigrostriatal brain regions interconnected by dopaminergic neurons, including the substantia nigra and dorsal putamen. A region-of-interest analysis revealed that activation in these regions was related to positive infant affect (happy > neutral > sad) for each own–unknown infant-face contrast. CONCLUSIONS. When first-time mothers see their own infant's face, an extensive brain network seems to be activated, wherein affective and cognitive information may be integrated and directed toward motor/behavioral outputs. Dopaminergic reward-related brain regions are activated specifically in response to happy, but not sad, infant faces. Understanding how a mother responds uniquely to her own infant, when smiling or crying, may be the first step in understanding the neural basis of mother–infant attachment.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In 28 first-time mothers, viewing their own 5–10-month-old baby’s face activated dopamine-associated reward and frontolimbic brain regions compared with an unknown baby’s face. Happy own-baby faces specifically activated nigrostriatal regions, with a graded response across happy, neutral, and sad affect.

Key findings

  • Own > unknown baby faces activated reward-processing regions including ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra, striatum, and frontal regions for emotion, cognition, and motor output (P<0.001, FDR q<0.05).
  • Happy own-baby faces versus unknown happy faces activated nigrostriatal regions including substantia nigra and dorsal putamen (P<0.0005, FDR q<0.05); neutral own faces showed weaker activation in 4 of 6 regions (P<0.01), and no region showed significant own > unknown sad-face activation.
  • Region-of-interest analyses showed a graded response by infant affect (happy > neutral > sad); sad responses were significantly lower than happy responses in each region (P<0.005, except amygdala P<0.05).
  • Mothers’ own feelings correlated with how they imagined the baby felt (r=0.82, P<0.001), and they were more sensitive to their own baby’s affect than to unknown baby faces (own r=0.87 vs unknown r=0.80; slope own=0.84 vs unknown=0.49, P<0.05).

Methods

  • Event-related fMRI study of 28 first-time mothers shown novel images of their own 5–10-month-old baby and a matched unknown baby; 60 unique stimuli from 6 categories (own/unknown × happy/neutral/sad) were presented for 2 seconds each with a 2–6 second inter-stimulus interval.
  • Mothers were enrolled during the third trimester; babies were videotaped around 7 months post-delivery, and scanning occurred at least 3 months later. During the second scanning run, data were available for 26 women because of head motion in one case and scanner failure in another.
  • Analyses used random-effects GLM with FDR correction at q<0.05, cluster threshold 100 mm³ except brainstem at 30 mm³, plus region-of-interest random-effects analyses and 2-factor repeated-measures ANOVAs.

Limitations

  • Stated: mothers were scanned at varying times postpartum (7–17 months) and viewed baby faces ranging from 5 to 10 months, which may have influenced results.
  • Stated: key animal-derived maternal brain regions such as the medial preoptic area and ventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis were not activated; prior fMRI work suggests these may be more important in the early postpartum period.
  • Stated: individual variation within the sample (breastfeeding duration, mother–infant separation, psychopathology risk) limits interpretation; evident from the text: the second scanning run showed no significant activation, and no significant main effect of affect or identity × affect interaction was found.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1542/peds.2007-1566

Cites

63 of 63 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 59 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Main effect of infant identity (O>U) also activated striatal and midbrain regions including the ventral striatum, head of caudate, putamen, ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra.

    “Also activated were striatal and midbrain regions including the ventral striatum, head of caudate, putamen, ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Main effect of infant identity (O>U) also activated other significant areas including regions of the inferior, middle and superior temporal gyri (including the fusiform gyrus and temporal pole), the lateral amygdala, thalamic nuclei and the hypothalamus.

    “Other significant areas included regions of the inferior, middle and superior temporal gyri (including the fusiform gyrus and temporal pole), the lateral amygdala, thalamic nuclei and the hypothalamus (Table 2, Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    No significant activation was seen for any contrast during the second scanning run, where the baby face stimuli from Run 1 were repeated and data from 2 subjects were missing.

    “No significant activation was seen for any contrast during the second scanning run, where the baby face stimuli from Run 1 were repeated and data from 2 subjects were missing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Significant activation was seen in four of the six regions using the "Own-Neutral" vs. "Unknown-Neutral" (ON>UN) contrast, although at much lower levels of statistical significance (P<0.01).

    “Significant activation was seen in four of the six regions using the “Own-Neutral” vs. “Unknown-Neutral” (ON>UN) contrast, although, as predicted, at much lower levels of statistical significance (P<0.01).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    These regions essentially overlapped regions of significance in the main effects "identity" analysis for O>U.

    “These regions essentially overlapped regions of significance in the main effects “identity” analysis for O>U (Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 30
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After contrasting own and unknown baby faces (ON>UN), no significant activation remained, even at lowered statistical thresholds; thus, there was no significant difference in posterior visual pathway response between the own and unknown baby face stimuli.

    “However, after contrasting “own” and “unknown” baby faces (ON>UN), no significant activation remained, even at lowered statistical thresholds (Figure 2C). Thus, there was no significant difference in posterior visual pathway response between the own and unknown baby face stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Face stimuli activated brain regions along the ventral visual pathway from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe, including the fusiform gyrus and the so-called "fusiform face area".

    “As expected, face stimuli activated brain regions along the ventral visual pathway from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe, including the fusiform gyrus and the so-called “fusiform face area” (Figure 2A&B) (50).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Haber SN, Fudge JL, McFarland NR. Striatonigrostriatal pathways in primates form an ascending spiral from the shell to the dorsolateral striatum. J Neurosci.2000;20(6):2369–2382 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No brain region was significantly activated by infant affect as a main effect (F>15.66, df=2,54, random effects, FDR corrected q<0.05), nor was an identity x affect interaction effect seen, with or without FDR correction.

    “No brain region was significantly activated by infant “affect” as a main effect (F>15.66, df=2,54, using a random effects model, FDR corrected q<0.05), nor was an “identity x affect” interaction effect seen, with or without FDR correction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A significant difference was seen between happy and neutral affect in one region, and between neutral and sad affect in another (both P<0.05).

    “A significant difference was also seen between happy and neutral affect in one region, and between neutral and sad affect in another (both P<0.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Smiling, but not neutral or sad, faces specifically activate nigrostriatal brain regions interconnected by dopaminergic neurons, with a graded response dependent on infant affect (happy>neutral>sad).

    “Smiling, but not neutral or sad, faces specifically activate nigrostriatal brain regions interconnected by dopaminergic neurons (51), with a graded response dependent on infant affect (happy>neutral>sad).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Crittenden PM, Claussen AH. The Organization of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press;2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD signal changes in dopamine-associated brain regions reflect dopaminergic activity.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Five specific regions of activation were seen in the limbic area (cluster threshold 100 mm3), and one in the midbrain (cluster threshold 30 mm3), including bilateral putamen, left substantia nigra region, right thalamus, and left lateral superior amygdala.

    “Five specific regions of activation were seen in the limbic area (with a cluster threshold of 100 mm3), and one in the midbrain (cluster threshold 30 mm3), including bilateral putamen, left substantia nigra region, right thalamus, and the left lateral superior amygdala (Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the left dorsal putamen and substantia nigra area, own-happy faces produced a significant fMRI-BOLD response, neutral faces produced much less, and no response difference was seen in the sad face contrast.

    “As an example, in Figure 5 the left dorsal putamen and substantia nigra area, two key interconnecting dopaminergic brain regions, showed a significant fMRI-BOLD response to own-happy faces but much less to neutral faces, and no response difference was seen in the sad face contrast.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    In all six regions, there was a progressive decrease in the % signal change differences across happy, neutral and sad affect, with activation related to positive infant affect (happy>neutral>sad) for each own-unknown baby face contrast.

    “In all six regions, there appeared to be a progressive decrease in the % signal change differences, across happy, neutral and sad affect (Figure 4).”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “A region-of-interest analysis revealed that activation in these regions was related to positive infant affect (happy>neutral>sad) for each own-unknown baby face contrast.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The contrast between sad faces and baseline revealed widespread activation in response to both own and unknown sad baby faces, with a similar pattern for each.

    “This was evident from the contrast between sad faces and baseline, which revealed widespread activation in response to both own and unknown sad baby faces, though with a similar pattern for each.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most prior studies have had a small sample size (10 or fewer subjects) or used a suboptimal fixed effects analysis, which prevents generalization of the results to the population from which the sample was drawn.

    “In addition, most prior studies have had a small sample size (10 or fewer subjects) or used a suboptimal fixed effects analysis (24) which prevents generalization of the results to the population from which the sample was drawn (30).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [24] Swain JE, Lorberbaum JP, Kose S, Strathearn L. Brain basis of early parent-infant interactions: psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry.2007;48(3/4):262–287 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [30] Huettel SA, Song AW, McCarthy G. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates;2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Baby face images were classified into five affect groups by a trained research assistant using a facial affect coding scheme based on Cole et al., with excellent inter-observer reliability (Pearson correlation coefficient 0.925, 2-tailed, P<0.001) based on 466 double coded images.

    “Using a facial affect coding scheme, based on Cole et al (34), these images were classified by a trained research assistant into one of five affect groups: very happy, happy, neutral, sad or very sad. Excellent inter-observer reliability was demonstrated, based on 466 double coded images (Pearson correlation coefficient 0.925, 2-tailed, P<0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cole et al (34)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Differences in baby face affect may have been a confounding factor in prior maternal response studies because the amygdala plays an important role in processing face affect and its response may be modulated by dopamine.

    “Since the amygdala plays an important role in processing face affect (27), and its response may be modulated by dopamine (28;29), differences in baby face affect may have been a confounding factor.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] Fitzgerald DA, Angstadt M, Jelsone LM, Nathan PJ, Phan KL. Beyond threat: amygdala reactivity across multiple expressions of facial affect. Neuroimage.2006;30(4):1441–1448 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] Tessitore A, Hariri AR, Fera F, et al. Dopamine modulates the response of the human amygdala: a study in Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci.2002;22(20):9099–9103 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [29] Floresco SB, Tse MT. Dopaminergic regulation of inhibitory and excitatory transmission in the basolateral amygdala-prefrontal cortical pathway. J Neurosci.2007;27(8):2045–2057 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The ability to link sensory cues with the underlying needs of an infant, and differentially respond to such needs, is thought to be the basis for establishing secure mother-infant attachment.

    “In addition, the ability to link these sensory cues with the underlying needs of an infant, and differentially respond to such needs, is thought to be the basis for establishing secure mother-infant attachment (15–17).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [15] Murray L. The impact of postnatal depression on infant development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry.1992;33(3):543–561 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Grienenberger JF, Kelly K, Slade A. Maternal reflective functioning, mother-infant affective communication, and infant attachment: exploring the link between mental states and observed caregiving behavior in the intergenerational transmission of attachment. Attach Hum Dev.2005;7(3):299–311 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] Bowlby J. Attachment and Loss.Vol 1. London, United Kingdom: Hogarth Press;1969

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The amygdala is strongly activated in some studies but deactivated in another.

    “The amygdala, for example, is strongly activated in some studies (20;23), but deactivated in another (22).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [20] Ranote S, Elliott R, Abel KM, Mitchell R, Deakin JF, Appleby L. The neural basis of maternal responsiveness to infants: an fMRI study [published correction appears in Neuroreport. 2004;15(14):2303]. Neuroreport.2004;15(11):1825–1829 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] Leibenluft E, Gobbini MI, Harrison T, Haxby JV. Mothers’ neural activation in response to pictures of their children and other children [published correction appears in Biol Psychiatry. 2004;56(8):612]. Biol Psychiatry.2004;56(4):225–232 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Bartels A, Zeki S. The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love. Neuroimage.2004;21(3):1155–1166 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The false discovery rate (FDR) approach was used to correct for multiple comparisons at a threshold of q<0.05, which accepts 5% of the discovered (supra-threshold) voxels as false positives.

    “The false discovery rate (FDR) approach (44) was used to correct for multiple comparisons at a threshold of q<0.05, which accepts 5% of the discovered (supra-threshold) voxels as false positives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Genovese CR, Lazar NA, Nichols T. Thresholding of statistical maps in functional neuroimaging using the false discovery rate. Neuroimage.2002;15(4):870–878 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    In the random effects analysis, statistical maps were created for each individual subject before being subjected to a second level of statistical analysis, allowing generalization to the sample population of first-time mothers.

    “In the random effects analysis, statistical maps were created for each individual subject before being subjected to a second level of statistical analysis, allowing generalization to the sample population of first-time mothers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The striatum is activated in response to face images of a mother's own child compared to unknown (or familiar but unrelated) children, as well as to infant cry stimuli.

    “Several studies have shown that the striatum, a key projection of midbrain dopamine neurons which includes the putamen and caudate head, is activated in response to face images of a mother’s own child compared to unknown (or familiar but unrelated) children (22;23), as well as to infant cry stimuli (18).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [22] Bartels A, Zeki S. The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love. Neuroimage.2004;21(3):1155–1166 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] Leibenluft E, Gobbini MI, Harrison T, Haxby JV. Mothers’ neural activation in response to pictures of their children and other children [published correction appears in Biol Psychiatry. 2004;56(8):612]. Biol Psychiatry.2004;56(4):225–232 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] Lorberbaum JP, Newman JD, Horwitz AR, et al. A potential role for thalamocingulate circuitry in human maternal behavior. Biol Psychiatry.2002;51(6):431–445 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Each subject baby was matched to a single control baby, with an equal number of face images from each affect group, and wherever possible matched on age and race.

    “Each subject baby was matched to a single control baby, with an equal number of face images from each affect group. Wherever possible, the two babies were also matched on age and race.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The mesocorticolimbic dopamine system may play a role in processing reward-based signals and motivating maternal care.

    “One common theme emerging from these studies has been the possible role of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system in processing reward-based signals and motivating maternal care, as seen in animal models (see review (24)).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Swain JE, Lorberbaum JP, Kose S, Strathearn L. Brain basis of early parent-infant interactions: psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry.2007;48(3/4):262–287 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Mothers did not observe the videotaping, to ensure that each baby face image was novel when presented during the subsequent scanning session.

    “The mothers did not observe the videotaping, to ensure that each baby face image was novel when presented during the subsequent scanning session.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Similar activation patterns have been seen in response to pictures of romantic partners, beautiful faces, and sexual stimuli, suggesting a link between brain reward circuits and attachment.

    “Similar activation patterns have been seen in response to pictures of romantic partners (22), beautiful faces (25) and sexual stimuli (26), suggesting a link between brain reward circuits and attachment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [22] Bartels A, Zeki S. The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love. Neuroimage.2004;21(3):1155–1166 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] Aharon I, Etcoff N, Ariely D, Chabris CF, O'Connor E, Breiter HC. Beautiful faces have variable reward value: fMRI and behavioral evidence. Neuron.2001;32(3):537–551 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] Arnow BA, Desmond JE, Banner LL, et al. Brain activation and sexual arousal in healthy, heterosexual males. Brain.2002;125(pt 5):1014–1023 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Slices were positioned 30 degrees to the ACPC line in the axial plane, downward from posterior to anterior, which (along with a reduced TE and slice thickness) has been shown to optimize visualization of the orbitofrontal cortex.

    “Slices were positioned 30 degrees to the anterior commissure / posterior commissure (ACPC) line in the axial plane, downward from posterior to anterior, which (along with a reduced TE and slice thickness) has been shown to optimize visualization of the orbitofrontal cortex (36).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] McClure SM, Laibson DI, Loewenstein G, Cohen JD. Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science.2004;306(5695):503–507 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Anatomical regions were confirmed using the automated "Talairach Daemon" and manually using a human brain atlas.

    “Anatomical regions were confirmed using the automated “Talairach Daemon” (searching for “nearest gray matter”) (45), and manually, using a human brain atlas (46).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [45] Lancaster JL, Woldorff MG, Parsons LM, et al. Automated Talairach atlas labels for functional brain mapping. Hum Brain Mapp.2000;10(3):120–131 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [46] Mai JK, Assheuer J, Paxinos G. Atlas of the Human Brain. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Elsevier;2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    There were no significant differences in the timing of "own" and "unknown" baby face images (natural log of mean presentation times, paired samples t-test, t=−0.73, df=29, P=0.47), or in the OH>UH, ON>UN or OS>US comparisons (df=9; Happy: t=1.52, P=0.16; Neutral: t=0.72, P=0.49; Sad: t=−1.69, P=0.13).

    “There were no significant differences in the timing of “own” and “unknown” baby face images (natural log of mean presentation times, paired samples t-test, t=−0.73, df=29, P=0.47), or in the OH>UH, ON>UN or OS>US comparisons (df=9; Happy: t=1.52, P=0.16; Neutral: t=0.72, P=0.49; Sad: t=−1.69, P=0.13).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, and all subjects provided written informed consent.

    “The protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, and all subjects provided written informed consent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    One subject had more than 2 mm translation during Run 1, and analyses were repeated before and after excluding this subject; a single subject had unacceptable head motion during Run 2 and was excluded from further analyses.

    “One subject had more than 2 mm translation (2.3 mm) during Run 1, and analyses were repeated before and after excluding this subject. A single subject also had unacceptable head motion during Run 2 (3.2 mm translation and 3.5 mm rotation), and was excluded from further analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Each striatal region is integrally connected to a corresponding region of midbrain VTA and substantia nigra via ascending and descending dopaminergic neurons.

    “Each striatal region is integrally connected to a corresponding region of the midbrain’s VTA and substantia nigra via ascending and descending dopaminergic neurons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Crittenden PM, Claussen AH. The Organization of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press;2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The striatum is an important relay station between limbic and motor systems, integrating affective information from limbic regions with cognitive information from prefrontal cortex, in shaping motor/behavioral responses.

    “Thus, the striatum is believed to be an important relay station between the limbic and motor systems, integrating affective information from limbic regions with cognitive information from the prefrontal cortex, in shaping motor/behavioral responses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Crittenden PM, Claussen AH. The Organization of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press;2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In responding to infant social cues, mothers need to integrate affective and cognitive information about their baby, and evaluate competing demands, before choosing the most appropriate behavioral response.

    “In responding to infant social cues, whether positive or negative, mothers need to integrate both affective and cognitive information about their baby, and evaluate competing demands, before choosing the most appropriate behavioral response (52;53).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [52] Shafritz KM, Collins SH, Blumberg HP. The interaction of emotional and cognitive neural systems in emotionally guided response inhibition. Neuroimage.2006;31(1):468–475 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [53] Mirenowicz J, Schultz W. Preferential activation of midbrain dopamine neurons by appetitive rather than aversive stimuli. Nature.1996;379(6564):449–451 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In rat dams, extracellular dopamine release in ventral striatum is associated with an increase in maternal behaviors, with dopamine signal preceding onset of behavior.

    “In rat dams, extracellular dopamine release in the ventral striatum is associated with an increase in maternal behaviors, with the dopamine signal preceding the onset of the behavior (57).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Milner JS, Halsey LB, Fultz J. Empathic responsiveness and affective reactivity to infant stimuli in high- and low-risk for physical child abuse mothers. Child Abuse Negl.1995;19(6):767–780 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In primates, Haber et al demonstrated important anatomical feed-forward loops between striatum and VTA/substantia nigra, suggesting striatonigrostriatal circuits funnel information between ventromedial, central, and dorsolateral striatal regions.

    “In primates, Haber et al (51) demonstrated important anatomical feed-forward loops between the striatum and the VTA / substantia nigra region, suggesting that these striatonigrostriatal circuits funnel information between ventromedial (limbic), central (associative) and dorsolateral (motor) striatal regions (Figure 6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Crittenden PM, Claussen AH. The Organization of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press;2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There are corresponding connections between striatum and forebrain, including emotion processing, cognition, and motor/behavioral outputs.

    “Likewise, there are corresponding connections between the striatum and the forebrain, including those involved in emotion processing (medial prefrontal, anterior cingulate, insula), cognition (dorsolateral prefrontal) and motor/behavioral outputs (primary motor area) (51).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Crittenden PM, Claussen AH. The Organization of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press;2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Dopaminergic reward-related brain regions are activated specifically in response to happy, but not sad, baby faces.

    “Dopaminergic reward-related brain regions are activated specifically in response to happy, but not sad, baby faces.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Together these studies suggest that positive sensory cues from infants, such as a smiling facial expression, may stimulate dopamine release in the striatum, and promote responsive maternal care.

    “Although functional MRI only measures blood-oxygen level dependent changes in brain activity, together these studies suggest that positive sensory cues from infants, such as a smiling facial expression, may stimulate dopamine release in the striatum, and promote responsive maternal care.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [56] Champagne FA, Chretien P, Stevenson CW, Zhang TY, Gratton A, Meaney MJ. Variations in nucleus accumbens dopamine associated with individual differences in maternal behavior in the rat. J Neurosci.2004;24(17):4113–4123 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [57] Milner JS, Halsey LB, Fultz J. Empathic responsiveness and affective reactivity to infant stimuli in high- and low-risk for physical child abuse mothers. Child Abuse Negl.1995;19(6):767–780 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD signal changes in dopamine-associated brain regions reflect dopaminergic activity.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Mothers were scanned at varying times post-partum (between 7 and 17 months), viewing baby faces ranging from 5 to 10 months in age.

    “One limitation of this study is that the mothers were scanned at varying times post-partum (between 7 and 17 months), viewing baby faces ranging from 5 to 10 months in age (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The difference in response between own and unknown happy faces in dopamine-associated regions may be an index of the reward value or salience of the infant's face to the mother, which may in turn relate to maternal sensitivity or child neglect.

    “For example, the difference in response between own and unknown happy faces in these dopamine-associated regions may be an index of the reward value or salience of the infant’s face to the mother, which may in turn relate to maternal sensitivity or child neglect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD signal changes in dopamine-associated brain regions reflect dopaminergic activity.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Individual variation within this population (such as breastfeeding duration, mother-infant separation, and psychopathology risk) is a limitation in interpreting study findings.

    “While individual variation seen within this population (such as breastfeeding duration, mother-infant separation, and psychopathology risk) is another limitation in interpreting study findings, it also presents an opportunity for further research into the significance of these individual differences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Mothers may respond differently to their infant at differing ages, which may have influenced the results.

    “Although there is no published fMRI data on the question, mothers may respond differently to their infant at differing ages, which may have influenced our results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Other fMRI studies have only demonstrated activation of these areas in mothers of younger babies, during the first few months of life, suggesting these regions may be more important during the early postpartum period.

    “However, other fMRI studies have only demonstrated activation of these areas in mothers of younger babies, during the first few months of life (18, 24), suggesting that these regions may be more important during the early postpartum period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] Lorberbaum JP, Newman JD, Horwitz AR, et al. A potential role for thalamocingulate circuitry in human maternal behavior. Biol Psychiatry.2002;51(6):431–445 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [24] Swain JE, Lorberbaum JP, Kose S, Strathearn L. Brain basis of early parent-infant interactions: psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry.2007;48(3/4):262–287 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Differences in timing of the own-sad and unknown-sad conditions could have biased the results, with earlier images expected to produce a stronger hemodynamic response.

    “However, it is possible that differences in timing of the two conditions could have biased the results, with earlier images expected to produce a stronger hemodynamic response.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
40 of 40

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most prior baby face studies did not specifically control for variation in affect or examine response differences related to facial affect.

    “Although most baby face studies sought to standardize face affect, none of them specifically controlled for variation in affect, or examined response differences related to facial affect.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The control baby face images were unknown to each mother.

    “Control baby face images, unknown to each mother, were collected from the babies of other enrolled mothers or mothers involved in the pilot study.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    BOLD signal changes in dopamine-associated brain regions reflect dopaminergic activity.

    “all of the key dopamine-associated reward-processing regions of the brain are activated”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Maternal responses to infant behavioral cues may shape future child development.

    “How a mother responds to her infant’s behavioral cues may have an important role in shaping future child development.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies indicate that the mesolimbic dopamine system is activated as parents of both sexes view pictures of their own children but not pictures of other children, and this activation is enhanced by intranasal oxytocin.

    “Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies indicate that the mesolimbic DA system is activated as parents of both sexes view pictures of their own children but not pictures of other children, and this activation is enhanced by IN-OT [40,41,42].”

    From The Neurobiology of Love and Pair Bonding from Human and Animal Perspectives (2023) · cites this paper as [41]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Activation of the attachment system underpinning caregiving and partner preference is associated with activation of the dopaminergic reward processing system and the oxytocinergic system.

    “Studies on rodent models and neuroimaging studies have shown that activation of the attachment system underpinning both caregiving and partner preference is associated with the activation of two specific systems that have consistently been shown to play an important role in promoting and maintaining maternal behavior: (a) the dopaminergic reward processing system (Champagne et al., 2004; Strathe”

    From A developmental, mentalization-based approach to the understanding and treatment of borderline personality disorder (2009) · cites this paper as Strathearn, Li, Fonagy, & Montague, 2008

    The Introduction links dopamine-associated reward circuits to maternal caregiving and reports similar activation patterns in response to romantic partners. The Discussion reports activation of dopamine-associated regions when mothers viewed their own infants’ faces. Our copy does not support the additional claim about activation of the oxytocinergic system; this study did not measure partner preference. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In both studies, challenges to the attachment system yielded greater ventral striatal activation in securely attached individuals, whereas in avoidant/dismissing individuals it was associated with relative downregulation of reward-related activity.

    “In both studies, challenges to the attachment system yielded greater ventral striatal activation in securely attached individuals, whereas in avoidant/dismissing individuals it was associated with a relative downregulation of reward-related activity.”

    From A developmental, mentalization-based approach to the understanding and treatment of borderline personality disorder (2009) · cites this paper as Strathearn et al., 2008

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Mothers with secure attachment showed greater activation of brain reward regions, including ventral striatum, and oxytocin-associated hypothalamus/pituitary region.

    “Mothers with secure attachment showed greater activation of brain reward regions, including the ventral striatum, and the oxytocin-associated hypothalamus/pituitary region.”

    From A developmental, mentalization-based approach to the understanding and treatment of borderline personality disorder (2009) · cites this paper as Strathearn et al., 2008, in press

    The Discussion reports activation of the ventral striatum when mothers viewed their own babies’ faces across all affect groups. It says differences by adult attachment classification were for future research, not a finding about securely attached mothers. The reported results do not identify activation of an oxytocin-associated hypothalamus/pituitary region. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • When viewing infants' sad faces, securely attached mothers continued to show greater activation in reward processing regions, whereas insecure/dismissing mothers showed reward system deactivation and insular activation.

    “Securely attached mothers continued to show greater activation in reward processing regions, whereas insecure/dismissing mothers, congruent with findings described earlier, showed reward system deactivation and insular activation in response to seeing their own infant's sad faces.”

    From A developmental, mentalization-based approach to the understanding and treatment of borderline personality disorder (2009) · cites this paper as Strathearn et al., 2008, in press

    The Results (page unavailable) report insular activation in response to sad infant faces across the mothers studied. They do not report the claimed differences between securely attached and insecure/dismissing mothers: the Discussion says examining responses by adult attachment strategy is future work. The Results also found no significant reward-region activation when comparing own versus unknown sad faces across the sample. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Cluster threshold changes from cubic to square millimeters

    Minor

    The methods express cluster thresholds as volumes in mm3, including a 30 mm3 threshold. The sad-face contrast instead reports a cluster threshold of 30 mm2, an area rather than a volume.

1 of 1

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Related

Authors
Strathearn, L., Li, J., Fonagy, P., & Montague, P. R.
Affiliations
  • Baylor College of Medicine (US)
  • Human Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience
ORCID
Venue
Pediatrics
Publisher
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
Published
2008-07-01
Volume
122
Issue
1
Pages
40-51
ISSN
  • 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
  • 1098-4275
DOI
10.1542/peds.2007-1566
PMC
PMC2597649
OpenAlex
W2100246886
Cited by
460
References
62
Citations by year
2026: 9 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 29
FWCI
11.71
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA 11723, R01DA011723)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS045790, NS045790)
  • National Center for Research Resources (O1RR00188, M01RR000188)
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (K12-HD-41648, K23HD43097, K12HD041648, K23HD043097)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Infant Health and Development
Keywords
infant facial expressions, smiling, infant affect, ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, striatum, maternal attachment, primiparous women
MeSH terms
Adult, Brain, Female, Humans, Infant, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Mother-Child Relations, Mothers, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Trimester, Third, Smiling

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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