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The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity
Open accessAbstract
Our brains are hardwired to respond and seek immediate rewards. Thus, it is not surprising that many people overeat, which in some can result in obesity, whereas others take drugs, which in some can result in addiction. Though food intake and body weight are under homeostatic regulation, when highly palatable food is available, the ability to resist the urge to eat hinges on self-control. There is no homeostatic regulator to check the intake of drugs (including alcohol); thus, regulation of drug consumption is mostly driven by self-control or unwanted effects (i.e., sedation for alcohol). Disruption in both the neurobiological processes that underlie sensitivity to reward and those that underlie inhibitory control can lead to compulsive food intake in some individuals and compulsive drug intake in others. There is increasing evidence that disruption of energy homeostasis can affect the reward circuitry and that overconsumption of rewarding food can lead to changes in the reward circuitry that result in compulsive food intake akin to the phenotype seen with addiction. Addiction research has produced new evidence that hints at significant commonalities between the neural substrates underlying the disease of addiction and at least some forms of obesity. This recognition has spurred a healthy debate to try and ascertain the extent to which these complex and dimensional disorders overlap and whether or not a deeper understanding of the crosstalk between the homeostatic and reward systems will usher in unique opportunities for prevention and treatment of both obesity and drug addiction.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that obesity and addiction share neurobiological substrates—especially dopamine pathways—while also involving unique processes, so food reward is best viewed as a dimensional component of obesity rather than proof that obesity is food addiction. It synthesizes genetic, molecular, neurocircuitry, and behavioral overlaps to suggest that addiction prevention and treatment strategies may inform obesity interventions.
Key findings
- A genome-wide association study in 249,796 individuals of European descent identified 32 loci associated with BMI, but these explained only 1.5% of BMI variance. Candidate overlapping genes include DRD2 Taq I A1, CNR1, and the OPRM1 A118G polymorphism, linked to addiction, obesity risk, binge-eating, or alcoholism.
- Homeostatic and reward systems interact: VTA/NAc neurons express receptors for GLP-1, ghrelin, leptin, insulin, orexin, and melanocortins; orexigenic signals increase VTA DA cell activity to food stimuli, while anorexigenic signals inhibit DA firing and decrease DA release. Human data cited include an inverse relationship between BMI and illicit drug use, lower risk for substance use disorders in obese individuals, and increased risk for alcohol abuse/alcoholism relapse after bariatric surgery.
- Both addicted and obese subjects show blunted reward-circuit activation during consumption but sensitized responses to conditioned cues. Obese individuals viewing high-calorie food showed increased activation in NAc, dorsal striatum, OFC, ACC, amygdala, hippocampus, and insula; reduced striatal D2R availability is reported in addiction and obesity and is associated with decreased prefrontal activity.
- The insula is implicated in food, cocaine, and cigarette cravings; gastric distention activates the posterior insula, but lean—not obese—subjects showed amygdala activation and anterior insula deactivation. The extended amygdala, corticotropin-releasing factor signaling, and habenula are proposed to contribute to stress reactivity and the “dark side” transition in addiction and possibly food addiction.
Methods
- Narrative review and conceptual synthesis, not a systematic review or primary study. It integrates preclinical animal models and human genetic, imaging, and clinical evidence.
- The main analysis argues that homeostatic and reward systems interact, with dopamine as a common substrate across mesoaccumbens/mesolimbic, mesostriatal, and mesocortical pathways. It proposes a “bowtie”/nested layered architecture model in which the DA system subserves hypothalamic internal signals.
- Specific evidence cited includes a GWAS of 249,796 individuals, human PET/fMRI studies, rodent feeding and drug-reward experiments, and clinical observations such as bariatric surgery outcomes.
Limitations
- The authors state they do not claim obesity is the result of food addiction, but rather that food reward plays a critical role in overeating and obesity, referring to it as the dimensional component of obesity. They also note that the extent of overlap remains debated, that it is unclear whether obesogenic diets decrease striatal D2R, and that the extent of similar direct/indirect pathway regulatory processes in obesity remains unclear.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not use a systematic search or quantitative synthesis, and many cited findings are correlational or from animal models, so causal direction and human generalizability are not fully established.
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Claims the paper makes
86 Not checked yet · 28 Own interpretation · 14 No basis given
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, these 32 loci explained only 1.5% of the BMI variance (1,2), a situation that is unlikely to improve with larger samples because of the complex interactions between biological and environmental factors.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Genetic Overlaps
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Naukkarinen, 2010, Use of genome-wide expression data to mine the “Gray Zone“ of GWA studies leads to novel candidate obesity genes, PLoS Genet source
- Not checked yetcites [2] Speliotes, 2010, Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index, Nat Genet source
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In the paper
“Thus, the dopamine (DA) system, through the mesoaccumbens/mesolimbic (reward and emotions), mesostriatal (habits, routines, and movement), and mesocortical (executive function) pathways, is a common substrate in the neurobiology of both disorders (Figure 1).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
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In the paper
“Specifically, several hormones and neuropeptides involved in energy homeostasis influence the DA reward pathway (9).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] Volkow, 2013, Obesity and addiction: Neurobiological overlaps, Obes Rev source
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In the paper
“Addiction research has produced new evidence that hints at significant commonalities between the neural substrates underlying the disease of addiction and at least some forms of obesity.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
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In the paper
“Indeed, the most recent whole genome-wide association study conducted in 249,796 individuals of European descent identified 32 loci associated with body mass index (BMI).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Genetic Overlaps
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Naukkarinen, 2010, Use of genome-wide expression data to mine the “Gray Zone“ of GWA studies leads to novel candidate obesity genes, PLoS Genet source
- Not checked yetcites [2] Speliotes, 2010, Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index, Nat Genet source
plaincorrelationaln = 249,796- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, these 32 loci explained only 1.5% of the BMI variance (1,2), a situation that is unlikely to improve with larger samples because of the complex interactions between biological and environmental factors.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Genetic Overlaps
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Naukkarinen, 2010, Use of genome-wide expression data to mine the “Gray Zone“ of GWA studies leads to novel candidate obesity genes, PLoS Genet source
- Not checked yetcites [2] Speliotes, 2010, Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index, Nat Genet source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Both addiction and obesity reflect imbalances in the responses of the brain to rewarding stimuli in the environment.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
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In the paper
“Disruption in both the neurobiological processes that underlie sensitivity to reward and those that underlie inhibitory control can lead to compulsive food intake in some individuals and compulsive drug intake in others.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For obesity, this imbalance can be triggered by endocrinological abnormalities that change the energetic threshold and modify the sensitivity to food rewards.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
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In the paper
“The decision to eat (or not) is not only influenced by the internal state of the caloric equation but also by nonhomeostatic factors, such as food palatability and environmental cues that trigger conditioned responses.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
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In the paper
“With repeated exposure, the DA neurons stop firing when receiving the food and fire instead when exposed to the stimulus that predicts food delivery (33).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schultz, 1998, Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons, J Neurophysiol source
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In the paper
“Similarly, in obese individuals with binge-eating disorder, higher DA release—when exposed to food cues—was associated with the severity of the disorder (51).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [51] Wang, 2011, Enhanced striatal dopamine release during food stimulation in binge eating disorder, Obesity (Silver Spring) source
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In the paper
“Therefore, it is not surprising that these hormone/peptides can influence the rewarding responses to drugs of abuse.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
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In the paper
“More specifically, projections from the amygdala, hippocampus, and OFC to DA neurons and to NAc are involved in conditioned responses to food (52) and drugs (53).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] Petrovich, 2010, Forebrain circuits and control of feeding by learned cues, Neurobiol Learn Mem source
- Not checked yetcites [53] Lasseter, 2011, Interaction of the basolateral amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex is critical for drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats, Neuropsychopharmacology source
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In the paper
“Dopamine neurons (both in VTA and substantia nigra) modulate not only reward but also the motivation and sustainability of effort necessary to accomplish behaviors needed for survival.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
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In the paper
“Experiments in rodents have shown, for example, that DA signals through both D1 receptors and D2 receptors (D2R) in the dorsal striatum are necessary for feeding and other eating-related behaviors (28).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Palmiter, 2008, Dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum is essential for motivated behaviors: Lessons from dopamine-deficient mice, Ann N Y Acad Sci source
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In the paper
“Thus, palatable foods, like drugs of abuse, represent a powerful environmental trigger, which, in vulnerable individuals, has the potential to facilitate or exacerbate the establishment of uncontrolled behaviors.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
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In the paper
“Predictably then, many neurotransmitters implicated in drug-seeking behaviors are also implicated in food intake (9).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] Volkow, 2013, Obesity and addiction: Neurobiological overlaps, Obes Rev source
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In the paper
“Animal models of both food and drug reward have shown that after extinction, the behavior for drug or food consumption can be triggered either by exposure to the cue, the reward, or a stressor (34).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Nair, 2009, The neuropharmacology of relapse to food seeking: Methodology, main findings, and comparison with relapse to drug seeking, Prog Neurobiol source
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In the paper
“Preclinical studies showing that decreased DA activity in VTA results in a dramatic increase in the consumption of high-fat foods (47) partially support this hypothesis.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Stoeckel, 2008, Widespread reward-system activation in obese women in response to pictures of high-calorie foods, Neuroimage source
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In the paper
“Compared with normal-weight individuals, obese individuals observing pictures of high-calorie food (stimuli to which they are conditioned) showed increased activation in regions of the reward and motivation circuits (NAc, dorsal striatum, orbitofrontal cortex [OFC], anterior cingulate cortex [ACC], amygdala, hippocampus, and insula) (50).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Killgore, 2005, Body mass predicts orbitofrontal activity during visual presentations of high-calorie foods, Neuroreport source
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In the paper
“In contrast to the blunted reward responses during reward consumption, both addicted and obese subjects show sensitized responses to conditioned cues predictive of drug or food reward.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
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In the paper
“Interestingly, when the cue does not lead to the expected food reward, DA neuron activity is inhibited, decreasing the incentive value for the cue (extinction).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
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In the paper
“It can be argued that this neurocircuitry model of addiction also applies to certain types of obesity.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps
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In the paper
“The phenomenological and neurobiological overlaps between obesity and addiction can be predicted on the basis that drugs of abuse tap into the same neuronal mechanisms that modulate the motivation and drive to seek and consume food (27).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Volkow, 2007, Issues for DSM-V: Should obesity be included as a brain disorder?, Am J Psychiatry source
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In the paper
“The overwhelming urge to seek and consume the drug in addiction involves disruption not only of the reward circuitry but also of other circuits, including interoception, inhibitory control, mood and stress regulation, and memory (39).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Volkow, 2010, Addiction: Decreased reward sensitivity and increased expectation sensitivity conspire to overwhelm the brain's control circuit, Bioessays source
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In the paper
“Taken together, these results strongly suggest the possibility that food and drugs may be competing for overlapping reward mechanisms.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
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In the paper
“For drug reward, studies have also shown that an imbalance between D1 receptor signaling (enhanced) and D2 receptor signaling (decreased) facilitates compulsive drug intake (36);”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Luo, 2011, Acute cocaine induces fast activation of D1 receptor and progressive deactivation of D2 receptor striatal neurons: In vivo optical microprobe [Ca2+]i imaging, J Neurosci source
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In the paper
“The extensive glutamatergic afferents to DA neurons from regions involved in the processing of reward (NAc), conditioning (amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex), and salience attribution (orbitofrontal cortex) modulate their activity in response to conditioned cues (31).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Geisler, 2008, Functional implications of glutamatergic projections to the ventral tegmental area, Rev Neurosci source
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In the paper
“and bariatric surgery for obesity is associated with an increased risk for relapse to alcohol abuse and alcoholism (26).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] Suzuki, 2012, Alcohol use disorders after bariatric surgery, Obes Surg source
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In the paper
“Similarly, preclinical studies have shown that repeated drug exposures are associated with long-lasting reductions in striatal D2R levels and signaling (72,73).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [72] Nader, 2006, PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine self-administration in monkeys, Nat Neurosci source
- Not checked yetcites [73] Volkow, 2001, Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: Association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex, Am J Psychiatry source
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In the paper
“However, compared with food cues, drug cues are more powerful triggers of reinforcer-seeking behavior following a period of abstinence.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
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In the paper
“The capacity to inhibit prepotent responses and exert self-control contributes to an individual’s ability to suppress inappropriate behaviors, such as taking drugs or eating past the point of satiety, thus modulating the vulnerability to addiction or obesity, respectively (70,71).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Volkow, 2000, Addiction, a disease of compulsion and drive: Involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex, Cereb Cortex source
- Not checked yetcites [71] Volkow, 2008, Low dopamine striatal D2 receptors are associated with prefrontal metabolism in obese subjects: Possible contributing factors, Neuroimage source
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In the paper
“Thus, once extinguished, drug-reinforced behaviors are far more susceptible to stress-induced reinstatement than food-reinforced behaviors (56).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [56] Kearns, 2011, A review of preclinical research demonstrating that drug and non-drug reinforcers differentially affect behavior, Curr Drug Abuse Rev source
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In the paper
“Thus, improper regulation by D2R-mediated DA signaling of these frontal regions in addicted and obese subjects could underlie the enhanced incentive motivational value of drugs or food and the difficulty in resisting them (70,71).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Volkow, 2000, Addiction, a disease of compulsion and drive: Involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex, Cereb Cortex source
- Not checked yetcites [71] Volkow, 2008, Low dopamine striatal D2 receptors are associated with prefrontal metabolism in obese subjects: Possible contributing factors, Neuroimage source
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In the paper
“The reduction in striatal D2R in addiction and in obesity is associated with decreased activity in prefrontal regions involved in salience attribution (OFC), error detection and inhibition (ACC), and decision making (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) (73,79,80).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [73] Volkow, 2001, Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: Association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex, Am J Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [79] Volkow, 1993, Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers, Synapse source
- Not checked yetcites [80] Volkow, 2007, Profound decreases in dopamine release in striatum in detoxified alcoholics: Possible orbitofrontal involvement, J Neurosci source
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The emergence of cue-conditioned cravings and incentive motivation for the reward, which for food also occur in healthy individuals who do not overeat (69), would not be as devastating were they not coupled with growing deficits in the brain’s ability to inhibit maladaptive behaviors.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [69] Volkow, 2002, “Nonhedonic“ food motivation in humans involves dopamine in the dorsal striatum and methylphenidate amplifies this effect, Synapse source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Normal-weight subjects exposed to food cues showed increased activity in OFC, which was associated with food craving (63).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Wang, 2004, Exposure to appetitive food stimuli markedly activates the human brain, Neuroimage source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A similar inhibition of OFC activity (and NAc) was observed in cocaine abusers when they were asked to inhibit their drug craving during exposure to cocaine cues (55).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] Volkow, 2009, Cognitive control of drug craving inhibits brain reward regions in cocaine abusers, Neuroimage source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Preclinical and clinical studies have suggested that impairments in striatal DA signaling may undermine self-control as described below.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“Interestingly, successful dieters activate prefrontal regions involved in inhibitory control (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and OFC) while eating (88).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [88] DelParigi, 2007, Successful dieters have increased neural activity in cortical areas involved in the control of behavior, Int J Obes (Lond) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These and other studies evince a correlation between executive function and addiction and obesity risk/phenotypes, and further research will help clarify details as well as differences between these phenotypes.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, in humans, tasting palatable foods activated the insula and midbrain areas (102,103).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [102] DelParigi, 2005, Sensory experience of food and obesity: A positron emission tomography study of the brain regions affected by tasting a liquid meal after a prolonged fast, Neuroimage source
- Not checked yetcites [103] Frank, 2008, Sucrose activates human taste pathways differently from artificial sweetener, Neuroimage source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“They pointed out that both in drug addiction and in certain instances of obesity or eating disorders, stress and negative moods (depression, anxiety) can trigger compulsive drug (in addiction) or food intake in humans (obesity and eating disorders).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [106] Parylak, 2011, The dark side of food addiction, Physiol Behav source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Interestingly, a cross-sectional investigation of children’s ability to self-regulate, solve problems, and engage in goal-directed health behaviors revealed executive function proficiency to be negatively correlated not only with substance use but also with the consumption of high-calorie snack foods and with sedentary behaviors (90).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [90] Riggs, 2012, Relationships between executive cognitive function and lifetime substance use and obesity-related behaviors in fourth grade youth, Child Neuropsychol source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Even though the modulation of insular activity by DA has been poorly investigated, it is recognized that DA is involved in responses to the tasting of palatable foods that are mediated through the insula (101).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [101] Hajnal, 2005, Taste pathways that mediate accumbens dopamine release by sapid sucrose, Physiol Behav source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Accordingly, the reactivity of the insula has been suggested as a biomarker to help predict relapse (96).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [96] Janes, 2010, Brain reactivity to smoking cues prior to smoking cessation predicts ability to maintain tobacco abstinence, Biol Psychiatry source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Interestingly, a recent study of siblings discordant for their addiction to stimulant drugs found that the OFC of the addicted siblings was significantly smaller than that of nonaddicted siblings or control subjects (82).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [82] Ersche, 2012, Abnormal brain structure implicated in stimulant drug addiction, Science source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The middle insula plays a critical role in cravings for food, cocaine, and cigarettes (91–93).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [91] Bonson, 2002, Neural systems and cue-induced cocaine craving, Neuropsychopharmacology source
- Not checked yetcites [92] Pelchat, 2004, Images of desire: Food-craving activation during fMRI, Neuroimage source
- Not checked yetcites [93] Wang, 2007, Neural substrates of abstinence-induced cigarette cravings in chronic smokers, J Neurosci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In addition, the rostral insula (connected to primary taste cortex) provides information to the OFC that influences its multimodal representation of the pleasantness or reward value of incoming food (97).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [97] Rolls, 2008, Functions of the orbitofrontal and pregenual cingulate cortex in taste, olfaction, appetite and emotion, Acta Physiol Hung source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Consistent with this hypothesis, many imaging studies show differential activation of the insula during craving (95).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [95] Naqvi, 2009, The hidden island of addiction: The insula, Trends Neurosci source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Its importance in addiction was highlighted when a study found that smokers who suffered a stroke that damaged the insula were able to quit easily and without experiencing either cravings or relapse (94).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [94] Naqvi, 2007, Damage to the insula disrupts addiction to cigarette smoking, Science source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The lack of amygdalar response in obese subjects could reflect a blunted interoceptive awareness of bodily states linked with satiety (full stomach).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Similarly, in healthy control subjects, BMI was negatively correlated with metabolic activity in prefrontal regions for which the activity predicted the scores on tests of executive function (87).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [87] Volkow, 2009, Inverse association between BMI and prefrontal metabolic activity in healthy adults, Obesity (Silver Spring) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Brain imaging data also support the notion that structural and functional changes in brain regions implicated in executive (including inhibitory) function are associated with high BMI in otherwise healthy individuals.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Obese subjects exhibit greater insular activation than normal control subjects when tasting a liquid meal with sugar and fat (102).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [102] DelParigi, 2005, Sensory experience of food and obesity: A positron emission tomography study of the brain regions affected by tasting a liquid meal after a prolonged fast, Neuroimage source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, DA signaling appears to also be necessary for sensing the calorie content of food.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“Clearly, individual differences in executive function can constitute a prodromal risk for later obesity in some individuals (89).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Riggs, 2012, Executive function and latent classes of childhood obesity risk, J Behav Med source
boostedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Indeed, gastric distention results in activation of the posterior insula, a likely reflection of its role in the awareness of body states (in this case of fullness) (99).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [99] Wang, 2008, Gastric distention activates satiety circuitry in the human brain, Neuroimage source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Moreover, in lean but not in obese subjects, gastric distention resulted in activation of the amygdala and deactivation of the anterior insula (100).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [100] Tomasi, 2009, Association of body mass and brain activation during gastric distention: Implications for obesity, PLoS One source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eating behaviors present a great example of this architecture where the hypothalamus is a central knot of the metabolic bowtie (Figure 2A)”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Summary and Implications
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Their model highlights the importance of brain circuits that modulate stress reactivity and antireward, which are enhanced after repeated drug exposures but also after intermittent access to palatable foods.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [106] Parylak, 2011, The dark side of food addiction, Physiol Behav source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“These two systems can be viewed as examples of nested layered architectures (111), in which the DA bowtie subserves the internal signals mediated by hypothalamic signaling (Figure 2C).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Summary and Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [111] Csete, 2004, Bow ties, metabolism and disease, Trends Biotechnol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings are consistent with a role for the lateral habenula in mediating responses to aversive stimuli or states such as those that occur during dieting or drug withdrawal.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and midbrain DA nuclei (VTA and substantia nigra) and their projection regions (NAc; amygdala; hippocampus; dorsal striatum; and prefrontal, motor, and temporal cortices) represent a central knot for a system that reacts to salient external stimuli (including drugs and food), as well as relevant internal signals (i.e., hunger, thirst) (Figure 2B).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Summary and Implications
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In parallel, the recognition that the habenula mediates inhibition of VTA DA neuron firing when an expected reward does not materialize (107) also implicates this region in contributing to such antireward circuitry.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [107] Kimura, 2007, What does the habenula tell dopamine neurons?, Nat Neurosci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The human brain is a complex biological system that is organized in the layered architecture of interactive networks, sometimes called bowtie (111), whereby a narrowing funnel of many potential inputs converges onto a relatively small number of processes before fanning out again into a diversity of outputs.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Summary and Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [111] Csete, 2004, Bow ties, metabolism and disease, Trends Biotechnol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, activation of the lateral habenula, in animal models of cocaine or heroin addiction, has been associated with relapse (108,109).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [108] Zhang, 2005, Increased c-Fos expression in the medial part of the lateral habenula during cue-evoked heroin-seeking in rats, Neurosci Lett source
- Not checked yetcites [109] Brown, 2011, Identification of brain nuclei implicated in cocaine-primed reinstatement of conditioned place preference: A behaviour dissociable from sensitization, PLoS One source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 55
- Probably not a substantial claim. 10
In the paper
“Indeed, we showed that subjects who, despite having a high genetic risk for alcoholism (positive family history of alcoholism) were not alcoholics, had higher than normal striatal D2R, which was associated with normal prefrontal metabolism (81) that might have protected them from alcoholism.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [81] Volkow, 2006, High levels of dopamine D2 receptors in unaffected members of alcoholic families: Possible protective factors, Arch Gen Psychiatry source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, obesity can also result from easy access to highly palatable food, excessive consumption of which can affect homeostatic signaling and disrupt the sensitivity to food reward.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We present evidence of shared neurobiological substrates and do not claim that obesity is the result of food addiction but rather that food reward plays a critical role in overeating and obesity, referring to it as the dimensional component of obesity.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, neurons in VTA and/or nucleus accumbens (NAc) express glucagon-like peptide-1 (11,12), ghrelin (13,14), leptin (15,16), insulin (17), orexin (18), and melanocortin receptors (19).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [11] Alhadeff, 2012, GLP-1 neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract project directly to the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens to control for food intake, Endocrinology source
- Not checked yetcites [12] Rinaman, 2010, Ascending projections from the caudal visceral nucleus of the solitary tract to brain regions involved in food intake and energy expenditure, Brain Res source
- Not checked yetcites [13] Abizaid, 2006, Ghrelin modulates the activity and synaptic input organization of midbrain dopamine neurons while promoting appetite, J Clin Invest source
- Not checked yetcites [14] Jerlhag, 2007, Ghrelin administration into tegmental areas stimulates locomotor activity and increases extracellular concentration of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, Addict Biol source
- Not checked yetcites [15] Figlewicz, 2003, Expression of receptors for insulin and leptin in the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra (VTA/SN) of the rat, Brain Res source
- Not checked yetcites [16] Leshan, 2010, Ventral tegmental area leptin receptor neurons specifically project to and regulate cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript neurons of the extended central amygdala, J Neurosci source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is no homeostatic regulator to check the intake of drugs (including alcohol); thus, regulation of drug consumption is mostly driven by self-control or unwanted effects (i.e., sedation for alcohol).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This could explain the association of obesity with genes involved with DA neurotransmission, such as the DRD2 Taq I A1 allele, which has been associated with addiction (4).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Genetic Overlaps
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Blum, 1996, Increased prevalence of the Taq I A1 allele of the dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) in obesity with comorbid substance use disorder: A preliminary report, Pharmacogenetics source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Repeated consumption of a drug, on the other hand, can directly disrupt the reward circuit, its main pharmacologic target.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, there are genes at the intersection between reward and homeostatic pathways, like the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene, variations in which have been associated with BMI and obesity risk by most studies (5), as well as with addiction (6).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Genetic Overlaps
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Schleinitz, 2010, Role of genetic variation in the cannabinoid type 1 receptor gene (CNR1) in the pathophysiology of human obesity, Pharmacogenomics source
- Not checked yetcites [6] Benyamina, 2010, CNR1 gene polymorphisms in addictive disorders: A systematic review and a meta-analysis, Addict Biol source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Though food intake and body weight are under homeostatic regulation, when highly palatable food is available, the ability to resist the urge to eat hinges on self-control.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Overall, homeostatic orexigenic signals increase the activity of ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA cells when exposed to food stimuli, whereas anorexigenic ones inhibit DA firing and decrease DA release (10).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Opland, 2011, Modulation of the mesolimbic dopamine system by leptin, Brain Res source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“And, let us also remember in this context that endogenous opioids are involved in hedonic responses to food and to drugs and that the functional A118G polymorphism in the μ-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) has been associated with vulnerability for binge-eating disorders (7) and alcoholism (8).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Genetic Overlaps
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Davis, 2009, Dopamine for “wanting“ and opioids for “liking“: A comparison of obese adults with and without binge eating, Obesity (Silver Spring) source
- Not checked yetcites [8] Ray, 2011, The role of the Asn40Asp polymorphism of the mu opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) on alcoholism etiology and treatment: A critical review, Alcohol Clin Exp Res source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is increasing evidence that disruption of energy homeostasis can affect the reward circuitry and that overconsumption of rewarding food can lead to changes in the reward circuitry that result in compulsive food intake akin to the phenotype seen with addiction.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that these two diseases share neurobiological processes that, when disrupted, can result in compulsive consumption, while also involving unique neurobiological processes.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Abstract
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is particularly true whenever high-calorie content food is widely available, not just as a source of nutrition, but also as a strong reward that, by itself, promotes eating.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Genetic Overlaps
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The magnitude of these DA increases in addicted subjects predicts the intensity of cue-induced cravings (48), and in animals, they predict the effort that an animal is willing to exert to get the drug (49).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, human studies found an inverse relationship between BMI and illicit drug use (21) and a lower risk for substance use disorders in obese individuals (22), including lower rates of nicotine (23) and marijuana (24) abuse.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Bluml, 2012, Relationship between substance use and body mass index in young males, Am J Addict source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Simon, 2006, Association between obesity and psychiatric disorders in the US adult population, Arch Gen Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [23] Blendy, 2005, Reduced nicotine reward in obesity: Cross-comparison in human and mouse, Psychopharmacology (Berl) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since drugs activate brain reward pathways more potently than food, this helps explain (together with homeostatic satiety mechanisms) the greater ability of drugs to induce loss of control and compulsive consummatory behavior.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, upon first exposure to a food reward, the firing of DA neurons in the VTA increases with a resulting increase in DA release in the NAc (32).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] Norgren, 2006, Gustatory reward and the nucleus accumbens, Physiol Behav source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This possibility is consistent with a recent report in which a D1-like antagonist blocked and a D2-like antagonist increased the reinstatement of food-seeking behavior (37).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Ball, 2011, Opposing roles for dopamine D1- and D2-like receptors in discrete cue-induced reinstatement of food seeking, Behav Brain Res source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Surprisingly, both addicted and obese subjects exhibit less activation of reward circuits when given the drug or the palatable food, respectively (45).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [45] Stice, 2008, Relation of reward from food intake and anticipated food intake to obesity: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study, J Abnorm Psychol source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, since the increases in DA induced by the conditioned stimulus predict the behavioral price the animal is willing to pay to receive it, this will ensure that the motivational drive (fueled by DA signaling) occurs before the animal is eating the food itself.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, DA-deficient mice die of starvation, likely as a result of a decreased motivation to consume the food, and replenishing the dorsal striatum with DA restores feeding and rescues them (28).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Palmiter, 2008, Dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum is essential for motivated behaviors: Lessons from dopamine-deficient mice, Ann N Y Acad Sci source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Consistent with preclinical studies, imaging studies have also shown that anorexigenic peptides (e.g., insulin, leptin, peptide YY) decrease the sensitivity of the brain reward system to food reward, whereas orexigenic ones (e.g., ghrelin,) increase it [see review (44)].”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] Volkow, 2011, Reward, dopamine and the control of food intake: Implications for obesity, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Drugs of abuse work by activating the DA reward circuit, which, if chronic, in vulnerable individuals, can result in addiction.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, high-calorie foods can promote overeating (i.e., eating that is uncoupled from energetic needs) and trigger learned associations between the stimulus and the reward (conditioning).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Moreover, interventions that decrease BMI and reduce plasma levels of insulin and leptin enhance the sensitivity to psychostimulant drugs (25),”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] Davis, 2010, Insulin, leptin and reward, Trends Endocrinol Metab source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Since this is not what is seen in the clinic, it was suggested that blunted DA activation by consumption (of drug or food) could trigger overconsumption to compensate for the blunted response of the reward circuit (46).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [46] Stice, 2008, Relation between obesity and blunted striatal response to food is moderated by TaqIA A1 allele, Science source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In humans, the ingestion of palatable food releases DA in the striatum in proportion to the ratings of meal pleasantness (42) and activates reward circuitry (43).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [42] Small, 2003, Feeding-induced dopamine release in dorsal striatum correlates with meal pleasantness ratings in healthy human volunteers, Neuroimage source
- Not checked yetcites [43] Volkow, 2008, Overlapping neuronal circuits in addiction and obesity: Evidence of systems pathology, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Certain foods, particularly those rich in sugars and fat, are also potently rewarding (40) and can trigger addictive like behaviors in laboratory animals (41) and humans (27).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] Lenoir, 2007, Intense sweetness surpasses cocaine reward, PLoS One source
- Not checked yetcites [41] Avena, 2008, Evidence for sugar addiction: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake, Neurosci Biobehav Rev source
- Not checked yetcites [27] Volkow, 2007, Issues for DSM-V: Should obesity be included as a brain disorder?, Am J Psychiatry source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Brain DA pathways, which modulate the behavioral responses to environmental stimuli, play central roles in obesity (also in addiction).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Molecular Overlaps: Focus on Dopamine
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the striatum, D2 receptors mediate signaling through the indirect pathway that modulates frontocortical regions, and its down-regulation enhances drug sensitization in animal models (74), whereas its upregulation interferes with drug consumption (75).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] Ferguson, 2011, Transient neuronal inhibition reveals opposing roles of indirect and direct pathways in sensitization, Nat Neurosci source
- Not checked yetcites [75] Thanos, 2008, D2R DNA transfer into the nucleus accumbens attenuates cocaine self-administration in rats, Synapse source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Still, stress is associated with increased consumption of palatable foods and weight gain and a potentiated OFC activation to food rewards (57).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [57] Rudenga, 2012, Acute stress potentiates brain response to milkshake as a function of body weight and chronic stress [published online ahead of print March 20], Int J Obes (Lond)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also, when cocaine-addicted subjects purposefully inhibited craving when exposed to drug cues, those who were successful decreased metabolism in medial OFC (processes motivational value of a reinforcer) and NAc (predicts reward) (55), consistent with the involvement of OFC, ACC, and striatum in the enhanced motivation to procure the drug seen in addiction.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] Volkow, 2009, Cognitive control of drug craving inhibits brain reward regions in cocaine abusers, Neuroimage source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, DA also modulates motivation and persistence (58).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [58] Salamone, 2007, Effort-related functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine and associated forebrain circuits, Psychopharmacology (Berl) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, several lines of research support a functional link between OFC impairment and disordered eating, including the reported association between disinhibited eating in obese adolescents and reduced OFC volume (66).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] Maayan, 2011, Disinhibited eating in obese adolescents is associated with orbitofrontal volume reductions and executive dysfunction, Obesity (Silver Spring) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It appears as if DA activation of the striatum by cues (including drug-related contexts) is involved with the desire (wanting), as the trigger of behaviors geared toward consuming the desired reward.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is evidence that the OFC also supports conditioned cue-elicited feeding (64) and that it contributes to overeating, irrespective of hunger signals (65).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, a pre-existing dysfunction of prefrontal regions could also underlie the vulnerability for excessive drug or food consumption, which would be further exacerbated by decreases in striatal D2R (either drug- or stress-induced; it is unclear whether obesogenic diets decrease striatal D2R).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Moreover, inhibition of striatal D2R or activation of D1 receptor-expressing striatal neurons (mediate signaling in the striatal direct pathway) enhances the sensitivity to drug rewards (74).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] Ferguson, 2011, Transient neuronal inhibition reveals opposing roles of indirect and direct pathways in sensitization, Nat Neurosci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Dysregulation of striatal D2R signaling has also been implicated in obesity (76,77) and in compulsive food intake in obese rodents (78).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] de Weijer, 2011, Lower striatal dopamine D2/3 receptor availability in obese compared with non-obese subjects, EJNMMI Res source
- Not checked yetcites [77] Geiger, 2009, Deficits of mesolimbic dopamine neurotransmission in rat dietary obesity, Neuroscience source
- Not checked yetcites [78] Johnson, 2010, Dopamine D2 receptors in addiction-like reward dysfunction and compulsive eating in obese rats, Nat Neurosci source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, imaging studies showed that when nonobese male subjects were asked to inhibit their craving for food when exposed to food cues, they decreased activity in amygdala, OFC, hippocampus, insula, and striatum; and OFC decreases were associated with reductions in food craving (54).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [54] Wang, 2009, Evidence of gender differences in the ability to inhibit brain activation elicited by food stimulation, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, because impairments in OFC and ACC are associated with compulsive behaviors and impulsivity, impaired modulation of dopamine in these regions is likely to contribute to the compulsive and impulsive patterns of drug (addiction) or food (obesity) intake.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast to the decreases in prefrontal activity reported in detoxified cocaine abusers when not stimulated with drug or drug cues [see review (59)], ventral and medial prefrontal regions (including OFC and ventral ACC) become activated with exposure to craving-inducing stimuli (either drugs or cues) (60,61).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] Volkow, 2009, Imaging dopamine's role in drug abuse and addiction, Neuropharmacology source
- Not checked yetcites [60] Grant, 1996, Activation of memory circuits during cue-elicited cocaine craving, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Wang, 1999, Regional brain metabolic activation during craving elicited by recall of previous drug experiences, Life Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because drug taking becomes the main motivational drive in addiction, addicted subjects are aroused and motivated by the process of obtaining the drug but withdrawn and apathetic when exposed to non–drug-related activities.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, greater volumes of the medial OFC were seen in both bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder patients (67), and damage to the OFC in rhesus monkeys has been reported to result in hyperphagia (68).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67] Schafer, 2010, Regional grey matter volume abnormalities in bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder, Neuroimage source
- Not checked yetcites [68] Machado, 2007, Measuring reward assessment in a semi-naturalistic context: The effects of selective amygdala, orbital frontal or hippocampal lesions, Neuroscience source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The OFC is similarly involved in attributing salience value to food (62), helping to assess its expected pleasantness and palatability as a function of its context.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] Grabenhorst, 2008, How cognition modulates affective responses to taste and flavor: Top-down influences on the orbitofrontal and pregenual cingulate cortices, Cereb Cortex source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Imaging studies revealed that reduced availability of striatal D2R receptors is a consistent abnormality across a wide variety of drug addictions and one that can persist months after detoxification [reviewed in (59)].”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] Volkow, 2009, Imaging dopamine's role in drug abuse and addiction, Neuropharmacology source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The insula is also a primary gustatory area, which participates in many aspects of eating behaviors, such as taste.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, subjects who have recovered from anorexia nervosa show less insular activation when tasting sucrose and no association of feelings of pleasantness with insular activation as observed in control subjects (104).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [104] Wagner, 2008, Altered insula response to taste stimuli in individuals recovered from restricting-type anorexia nervosa, Neuropsychopharmacology source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The insula, particularly its more anterior regions, is reciprocally connected to several limbic regions and supports interoceptive functions, integrating the autonomic and visceral information with emotion and motivation and providing conscious awareness of these urges (95).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [95] Naqvi, 2009, The hidden island of addiction: The insula, Trends Neurosci source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“More recently, Parylak et al. (106) have proposed that a similar transition may occur in food addiction with exposure to obesogenic foods.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [106] Parylak, 2011, The dark side of food addiction, Physiol Behav source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Other studies found significant decreases in blood flow in the prefrontal cortex associated with higher weight in healthy control subjects (84,85), and a functional magnetic resonance imaging study reported impaired executive function in obese women (86).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [84] Willeumier, 2012, Elevated body mass in National Football League players linked to cognitive impairment and decreased prefrontal cortex and temporal pole activity, Transl Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [85] Willeumier, 2011, Elevated BMI is associated with decreased blood flow in the prefrontal cortex using SPECT imaging in healthy adults, Obesity (Silver Spring) source
- Not checked yetcites [86] Kishinevsky, 2012, fMRI reactivity on a delay discounting task predicts weight gain in obese women, Appetite source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, a magnetic resonance imaging study of elderly women found a negative correlation between BMI and gray matter volumes (including frontal regions), which, in the OFC, correlated with impaired executive function (83).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Self-Control and the Ability to Resist Temptation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [83] Walther, 2010, Structural brain differences and cognitive functioning related to body mass index in older females, Hum Brain Mapp source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, when normal weight women tasted a sweetener with calories (sucrose), both the insula and DA midbrain areas became activated, whereas tasting a calorie-free sweetener (sucralose) only activated the insula (103).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Awareness of Interoceptive Signals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [103] Frank, 2008, Sucrose activates human taste pathways differently from artificial sweetener, Neuroimage source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The dark side of addiction was initially proposed by Koob and Le Moal (105) to describe the transition that drug-addicted individuals experience between the initial, pleasurable use of drugs to the one that, with repeated use, results in drug consumption to relieve negative emotional states.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [105] Koob, 2005, Plasticity of reward neurocircuitry and the 'dark side' of drug addiction, Nat Neurosci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The habenula is also implicated in food reward: neurons in the rostromedial tegmental nucleus, which receive a major input from the lateral habenula, project to VTA DA neurons and are activated after food deprivation (110).”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [110] Jhou, 2009, The rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg), a GABAergic afferent to midbrain dopamine neurons, encodes aversive stimuli and inhibits motor responses, Neuron source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Central to their model is an enhanced sensitivity of the extended amygdala and increased signaling through corticotropin-releasing factor and corticotropin-releasing factor related peptides, which mediate responses to stress.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [106] Parylak, 2011, The dark side of food addiction, Physiol Behav source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This model helps explain the proliferating examples of contact points between obesity and addiction, some of which were highlighted in this review.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Summary and Implications
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is telling that the two largest preventable threats to public health (smoking and obesity) involve the reward circuit that drives the motivation of individuals to consume rewards despite the fact that they are harmful to their health.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Summary and Implications
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, an enhanced sensitivity of the habenula, as a result of chronic drug exposure, could underlie a greater reactivity to drug cues and also contribute to dysphoric states during withdrawal.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Dark Side of the Addictive Dimension
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Similar to other addictive disorders in which perturbations in brain regions within the core and extended reward networks have been reported, a less responsive dopamine system leads to a greater propensity towards obesity 40, 85, 86, 87, 88.”
From History of early life adversity is associated with increased food addiction and sex-specific alterations in reward network connectivity in obesity (2019) · cites this paper as [86]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > Neurocircuitry and Behavioral Overlaps > Reward, Conditioning, and Motivation
“Preclinical studies showing that decreased DA activity in VTA results in a dramatic increase in the consumption of high-fat foods (47) partially support this hypothesis.”
§ The Addictive Dimensionality of Obesity > References
“47. Stoeckel LE Weller RE Cook EW 3rd Twieg DB Knowlton RC Cox JE 2008 Widespread reward-system activation in obese women in response to pictures of high-calorie foods Neuroimage 41 636 647 18413289”
Citations
Cites
Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons
Schultz, W. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.80.1.1 · Cited by 4,564
Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress
Bloom, F. E., & Kupfer, D. J. (1995) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,985
Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index
MAGIC, Speliotes, E. K., on behalf of Procardis Consortium, Willer, C. J., Berndt, S. I., Monda, K. L., Thorleifsson, G., Jackson, A. U., Allen, H. L., Lindgren, C. M., et al. (2010) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.686 · Cited by 2,912
Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body
(Bud) Craig, A. (2003) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(03)00090-4 · Cited by 2,556
Haber, S. N., Fudge, J. L., & McFarland, N. R. (2000) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.20-06-02369.2000 · Cited by 1,610
Dopamine D2 receptors in addiction-like reward dysfunction and compulsive eating in obese rats
Johnson, P. M., & Kenny, P. J. (2010) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2519 · Cited by 1,495
Reward, dopamine and the control of food intake: implications for obesity
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G.-J., & Baler, R. D. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.11.001 · Cited by 1,400
Self-citationSynaptic plasticity and addiction
Kauer, J. A., & Malenka, R. C. (2007) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2234 · Cited by 1,397
Avena, N. M., Rada, P., & Hoebel, B. G. (2008) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.019 · Cited by 1,358
Association between obesity and psychiatric disorders in the US adult population
Simon, G. E., Von Korff, M., Saunders, K., Miglioretti, D. L., Crane, P. K., van Belle, G., & Kessler, R. C. (2006) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.824 · Cited by 1,338
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Brain Insulin Resistance at the Crossroads of Metabolic and Cognitive Disorders in Humans
Kullmann, S., Heni, M., Hallschmid, M., Fritsche, A., Preissl, H. T., & Häring, H. (2016) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00032.2015 · Cited by 654
Upadhyay, J., Farr, O. M., Perakakis, N., Ghaly, W., & Mantzoros, C. S. (2017) · Medical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2017.08.004 · Cited by 425
What is the evidence for “food addiction?” A systematic review
Gordon, E., Ariel-Donges, A., Bauman, V., & Merlo, L. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10040477 · Cited by 316
Dissecting impulsivity and its relationships to drug addictions
Jentsch, J. D., Ashenhurst, J. R., Cervantes, M. C., Groman, S. M., James, A. S., & Pennington, Z. T. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12388 · Cited by 281
Effects of non-invasive neurostimulation on craving: A meta-analysis
Jansen, J. M., Daams, J. G., Koeter, M. W. J., Veltman, D. J., van den Brink, W., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.009 · Cited by 284
Metadata
- Authors
- Volkow, N. D., Wang, G.-J., Tomasi, D., & Baler, R. D.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Brookhaven National Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Volkow, Nora D.
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-05
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 811-818
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4827347
- OpenAlex
- W1981784954
- Semantic Scholar
- 905b6cf49d1dc61cb189ca21cbc230487ef7d212
- Cited by
- 380
- References
- 114
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 14
- FWCI
- 6.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (ZIAAA000550)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- obesity, addiction, compulsive eating, reward systems, energy homeostasis, self-control, inhibitory control, palatable food, drug addiction, neural correlates
- MeSH terms
- Compulsive Behavior, Dopamine, Eating, Homeostasis, Humans, Obesity, Reward, Behavior, Addictive, Prefrontal Cortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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