The DOI matches its Crossref record; 3 of the 3 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Abstract
A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups (offering a new interpretation of group differences in standardized test performance), that it causes disidentification with school, and that practices that reduce this threat can reduce these negative effects.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, research that creates new groups in the laboratory has found that merely being made aware that there is a negative stereotype about your group's ability can cause social identity threat and identity incompatibility perceptions and thus reduce performance on relevant tasks (Leyens, Desert, Croizet, & Darcis, 2000;Steele, 1997).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“First, the perception that teachers have low expectations may exacerbate the harmful effects of stereotype threat , whereby low expectations either cause emotional responses that directly harm performance or cause students to disidentify with educational environments (Steele, 1997).”
From Who believes in me? The effect of student–teacher demographic match on teacher expectations (2016) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Importantly, mere awareness of gender stereotypes can in fl uence youths ' academic performance.”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Importantly, over time stereotype threat also has the potential to undermine students ' identi fi cation with the relevant academic domain (e.g., Steele, 1997), which may explain some of adolescent girls ' dampened interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fi elds and boys ' dampened interest in traditionally-feminine fi elds.”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
In the citing paper
“Indeed, stereotype threat dwells”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
In the citing paper
“Stereotype threat-the potential that one could be judged in light of a negative stereotype about one's group-is a potent type of collective threat (Steele, 1997).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 9,020
Self-citationHow Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
Test anxiety and direction of attention
Wine, J. (1971) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0031332 · Cited by 1,055
Research works printed but not linked: 47
- Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of action: A social-cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
- Baumeister, R. F., & Showers, C. J. (1984). A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 361–383.
- Benbow, C. P., & Arjmand, O. (1990). Predictions of high academic . achievement in mathematics and science by mathematically talented students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 430-441.
- Bettelheim, B. (1943). Individual and mass behavior in extreme situations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38, 417–452.
- Brill, A. A. (Ed.). (1938). The basic writings of Sigmund Freud. New York: Random House.
- Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. K. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification of Negro school children. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 591–599.
- Cooley, C. H. (1956). Human nature and the social order. New York: Free Press.
- Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608– 630.
- Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
- DeBoer, G. (1984). A study of gender effects in science and mathematics course-taking behavior among students who graduated from college in the late 1970's. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21, 95– 103.
- Culotta, E., & Gibbons, A. (Eds.). (1992, November 13). Minorities in science [Special section]. Science, 258, 1176–1232.
- Demo, D. H., & Parker, K. D. (1987). Academic achievement and selfesteem among Black and White college students. Journal of Social Psychology, 4, 345–355.
- Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender roles and women's achievement-related decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 135–172.
- Eccles-Parsons, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectations, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motivation (pp. 75–146). New York: Freeman.
- Fanon, F. (1967). Black skins, white masks. New York: Grove Press. (Original work published 1952)
- Erikson, E. (1956). The problem of ego-identity. Journal of the American Analytical Association, 4, 56–121.
- Frable, D., Blackstone, T., & Sherbaum, C. (1990). Marginal and mindful: Deviants in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Behavior, 59, 140–149.
- Geen, R. G. (1991). Social motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 377–399.
- Hare, B. R., & Costenell, L. A. (1985). No place to run, no place to hide: Comparative status and future prospects of . Black boys. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp. 201-214). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Herrnstein, R. A., & Murray, C. (1994). The. bell curve. New York: Grove Press.
- Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139–155.
- James, W. (1950). The principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1890)
- Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press.
- Jones, E. E., & Nisbett, R. E. (1972). The actor and the observer: Divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior. In E. E. Jones, D. E. Kanouse, H. H. Kelley, R. E. Nisbett, S. Valins, & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior (pp. 79–94). Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
- Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Lepper, M. R., Woolverton, M., Mumme, D. L., & Gurtner, J.-L. (1993). Motivational techniques of expert human tutors: Lessons for the design of computer-based tutors. In S. P. Lajoie & S. J. Derry (Eds.), Computers as cognitive tools (pp. 75–104). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Kleck, R. E., & Strenta, A. (1980). Perceptions of the impact of negatively valued physical characteristics on social interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 861–873.
- Lord, C. G., & Saenz, D. S. (1985). Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 918– 926.
- Major, B., Spencer, S., Schmader, T., Wolfe, C., & Crocker, J. (in press). Coping with negative stereotypes about intellectual performance: The role of psychological disengagement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
- Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Miller, L. S. (1995). An American imperative: Accelerating minority educational advancement. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Miller, L. S. (1996, March). Promoting high academic achievement among non-Asian minorities. Paper presented at the Princeton University Conference on Higher Education, Princeton, NJ.
- Ogbu, J. (1986). The consequences of the American caste system. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The school achievemént of minority children: New perspectives (pp. 19–56). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Osborne, J. (1994). Academics, self-esteem, and race: A look at the underlying assumption of the disidentification hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 449–455.
- Porter, J. R., & Washington, R. E. (1979). Black identity and selfesteem: A review of the studies of Black self-concept, 1968–1978. Annual Review of Sociology, 5, 53–74.
- Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 337–384). New York: Academic Press.
- Sarason, I. G. (1980). Introduction to the study of test anxiety. In I. G. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 57–78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1989). Goals and the self-identification process: Constructing desired identities. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goals concepts in personalíty and social psychology (pp. 243–290). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Solomon, R. P. (1992). Forging a separatist culture, Albany: State University of New York Press.
- Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261–302). New York: Academic Press.
- Steele, C. M. (1975). Name-calling and compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 361–369.
- Steele, C. M. (1992, April). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. The Atlantic Monthly, pp. 68–78.
- Steele, S. (1990). The content of our character. New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181-227). New York: Academic Press.
- Ware, N. C., Steckler, N. A., & Leserman, J. (1985). Undergraduate women: Who chooses a science major? Journal of Higher Education, 56, 73-84.
- Wylie, R. (1979). The self-concept (Vol. 2). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–195 of 195
Christy, K. R., & Fox, J. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.05.005 · Cited by 276
Identity Texts and Academic Achievement: Connecting the Dots in Multilingual School Contexts
Cummins, J., Hu, S., Markus, P., & Kristiina Montero, M. (2015) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.241 · Cited by 258
Smith, J. L., Lewis, K. L., Hawthorne, L., & Hodges, S. D. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212468332 · Cited by 256
Student Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning in the College Classroom
Pintrich, P. R., & Zusho, A. (2007) · The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: An Evidence-Based Perspective · doi:10.1007/1-4020-5742-3_16 · Cited by 254
Sackett, P. R., Hardison, C. M., & Cullen, M. J. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.7 · Cited by 252
Cook, J. E., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., & Cohen, G. L. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026312 · Cited by 244
Smalls, C., White, R., Chavous, T., & Sellers, R. (2007) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798407302541 · Cited by 243
Barres, B. A. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/442133a · Cited by 241
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Fryberg, S. A. (2012) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0029028 · Cited by 239
Ogedegbe, G. O. (2012) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.1307 · Cited by 230
Murphy, M. C., & Zirkel, S. (2015) · Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811511701204 · Cited by 223
Does stereotype threat affect women in academic medicine?
Burgess, D. J., Joseph, A., van Ryn, M., & Carnes, M. (2012) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e318248f718 · Cited by 225
Affirmed yet unaware: Exploring the role of awareness in the process of self-affirmation.
Sherman, D. K., Cohen, G. L., Nelson, L. D., Nussbaum, A. D., Bunyan, D. P., & Garcia, J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015451 · Cited by 223
Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations
Stangor, C., Carr, C., & Kiang, L. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.5.1191 · Cited by 221
Gender differences in student participation in an active-learning classroom
Aguillon, S. M., Siegmund, G.-F., Petipas, R. H., Drake, A. G., Cotner, S., & Ballen, C. J. (2020) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.19-03-0048 · Cited by 215
Murphy, M. C., Gopalan, M., Carter, E. R., Emerson, K. T. U., Bottoms, B. L., & Walton, G. M. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba4677 · Cited by 214
Saleem, F. T., Anderson, R. E., & Williams, M. (2020) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-019-00304-1 · Cited by 210
“2003; Steele 1997) and the concept of “model-minority” can exacerbate feelings of RST throughout adolescence and into adulthood (Awad et al.”
BackgroundSuccessful female leaders empower women's behavior in leadership tasks
Latu, I. M., Mast, M. S., Lammers, J., & Bombari, D. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.01.003 · Cited by 206
Racial Identity and Well-Being among African Americans
Hughes, M., Kiecolt, K. J., Keith, V. M., & Demo, D. H. (2015) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0190272514554043 · Cited by 203
Stereotype threat in organizations: implications for equity and performance
Walton, G. M., Murphy, M. C., & Ryan, A. M. (2015) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111322 · Cited by 184
Kray, L. J., Reb, J., Galinsky, A. D., & Thompson, L. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203261884 · Cited by 183
Grigg, S., Perera, H. N., McIlveen, P., & Svetleff, Z. (2018) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.01.007 · Cited by 180
Peterson, J. C. (2012) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.1311 · Cited by 178
Deconstructing Race and Ethnicity: Implications for Measurement of Health Outcomes
Manly, J. J. (2006) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245427.22788.be · Cited by 171
Racism and health: Challenges and future directions in behavioral and psychological research.
Neblett, E. W. (2019) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000253 · Cited by 164
Awad, G. H. (2007) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798407299513 · Cited by 162
Schmalz, D. L., & Kerstetter, D. L. (2006) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2006.11950091 · Cited by 154
Teaching minoritized students: Are additive approaches legitimate?
Cummins, J. (2017) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/1943-5045-87.3.404 · Cited by 153
Minding and mending the gap: Social psychological interventions to reduce educational disparities
Spitzer, B., & Aronson, J. (2015) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12067 · Cited by 152
Stereotype threat and women's performance in engineering
BELL, A. E., SPENCER, S. J., ISERMAN, E., & LOGEL, C. E. R. (2003) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/j.2168-9830.2003.tb00774.x · Cited by 149
Self-stigma in substance abuse: development of a new measure
Luoma, J. B., Nobles, R. H., Drake, C. E., Hayes, S. C., O’Hair, A., Fletcher, L., & Kohlenberg, B. S. (2013) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-012-9323-4 · Cited by 150
“…shows that when a person who identifies with a stigmatized group enters a situation with perceived potential for devaluation based on this identity (Steele 1997; Steele et al. 2002), he or she typically adopts avoidancefocused goals (Brodish and Devine 2009; Quinn et al. 2004) and engages in…”
Maton, K. I., Beason, T. S., Godsay, S., Sto. Domingo, M. R., Bailey, T. C., Sun, S., & Hrabowski, F. A. (2016) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.16-01-0062 · Cited by 147
Stereotype threat in men on a test of social sensitivity
Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. (2005) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-005-3714-x · Cited by 141
Female Leaders: Injurious or Inspiring Role Models for Women?
Hoyt, C. L., & Simon, S. (2011) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684310385216 · Cited by 140
Arens, A. K., Marsh, H. W., Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S., Murayama, K., & vom Hofe, R. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000163 · Cited by 140
Reciprocal effects between self-efficacy and achievement in mathematics and reading
Schöber, C., Schütte, K., Köller, O., McElvany, N., & Gebauer, M. M. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.01.008 · Cited by 138
Disabling the able: stereotype threat and women's work performance
Bergeron, D. M., Block, C. J., & Echtenkamp, A. (2006) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1902_3 · Cited by 137
Discreditable: Stigma Effects of Revealing a Mental Illness History on Test Performance
Quinn, D. M., Kahng, S. K., & Crocker, J. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264088 · Cited by 135
Harnessing Values to Promote Motivation in Education
Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. S. (2014) · Motivational Interventions · doi:10.1108/s0749-742320140000018002 · Cited by 131
Situational disengagement and persistence in the face of adversity
Nussbaum, A. D., & Steele, C. M. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.007 · Cited by 128
Self-citationViewing Clinical Research Career Development Through the Lens of Social Cognitive Career Theory
Bakken, L. L., Byars-Winston, A., & Wang, M.-F. (2006) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-005-3138-y · Cited by 127
Where and with whom does a brief social-belonging intervention promote progress in college?
Walton, G. M., Murphy, M. C., Logel, C., Yeager, D. S., Goyer, J. P., Brady, S. T., Emerson, K. T. U., Paunesku, D., Fotuhi, O., Blodorn, A., et al. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.ade4420 · Cited by 131
Clark, C. J., & Winegard, B. M. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1721233 · Cited by 128
Jackson, M. C., Galvez, G., Landa, I., Buonora, P., & Thoman, D. B. (2016) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.16-01-0067 · Cited by 128
“A voluminous body of research driven by stereotype threat theory (Steele, 1992, 1997)—which posits that the academic underperformance of underrepresented students can be partly explained by an anxiety caused by the fear that others’ judgments of their actions will be perceived as confirming…”
BackgroundSchimel, J., Arndt, J., Banko, K. M., & Cook, A. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.75.30984 · Cited by 127
Stereotype Threat and Group Differences in Test Performance: A Question of Measurement Invariance.
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & Hessen, D. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.696 · Cited by 126
The detrimental effects of a suggestion of sexism in an instruction situation
Adams, G., Garcia, D. M., Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Steele, C. M. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.10.004 · Cited by 122
Self-citationA systematic literature review of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.05.002 · Cited by 119
Schmader, T., Forbes, C. E., Zhang, S., & Berry Mendes, W. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208330450 · Cited by 117
Foundations for Young Adult Success: A Developmental Framework
Nagaoka, J., Farrington, C. A., Ehrlich, S. B., & Heath, R. D. (2015) · doi:10.59656/yd-g1389.001 · Cited by 115
Hazari, Z., Cass, C., & Beattie, C. (2015) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21214 · Cited by 111
Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions
Easterbrook, M. J., & Hadden, I. R. (2021) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12070 · Cited by 110
Fauth, R. C., Leventhal, T., & Brooks‐Gunn, J. (2007) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00522.x · Cited by 109
A Company I Can Trust? Organizational Lay Theories Moderate Stereotype Threat for Women
Emerson, K. T. U., & Murphy, M. C. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214564969 · Cited by 107
Perceived versus actual computer-email-web fluency
Bunz, U., Curry, C., & Voon, W. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.03.008 · Cited by 106
Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., Luke, M., O'Mara, E. M., Iuzzini, J., Jackson, L. E., Cai, H., & Wu, Q. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.03.009 · Cited by 104
Guyll, M., Madon, S., Prieto, L., & Scherr, K. C. (2010) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01636.x · Cited by 102
Stereotype threat and inflexible perseverance in problem solving
Carr, P. B., & Steele, C. M. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.003 · Cited by 96
Self-citationGender, ethnicity, development, and risk: Mentoring and the consideration of individual differences
Darling, N., Bogat, G. A., Cavell, T. A., Murphy, S. E., & Sánchez, B. (2006) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.20128 · Cited by 93
Is stereotype threat a useful construct for organizational psychology research and practice?
Kalokerinos, E. K., von Hippel, C., & Zacher, H. (2014) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/iops.12167 · Cited by 90
Baysu, G., Celeste, L., Brown, R., Verschueren, K., & Phalet, K. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12609 · Cited by 90
von Hippel, C., Sekaquaptewa, D., & McFarlane, M. (2015) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684315574501 · Cited by 85
Exploring the effect of media images on women's leadership self-perceptions and aspirations
Simon, S., & Hoyt, C. L. (2013) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430212451176 · Cited by 84
A Review of the Racial Identity Development of African American Adolescents: The Role of Education
DeCuir-Gunby, J. T. (2009) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654308325897 · Cited by 78
Sex/gender differences in cognitive abilities
Kheloui, S., Jacmin-Park, S., Larocque, O., Kerr, P., Rossi, M., Cartier, L., & Juster, R.-P. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105333 · Cited by 78
Baolian Qin, D. (2009) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558408326912 · Cited by 75
The Neuroscience of Stigma and Stereotype Threat
Derks, B., Inzlicht, M., & Kang, S. (2008) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207088036 · Cited by 74
Can Test Anxiety Interventions Alleviate a Gender Gap in an Undergraduate STEM Course?
Harris, R. B., Grunspan, D. Z., Pelch, M. A., Fernandes, G., Ramirez, G., & Freeman, S. (2019) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.18-05-0083 · Cited by 71
McCarthy, J. M., & Goffin, R. D. (2005) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2005.00325.x · Cited by 71
Finnigan, K. M., & Corker, K. S. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.05.009 · Cited by 64
African American adolescents’ academic persistence: a strengths-based approach
Butler-Barnes, S. T., Chavous, T. M., Hurd, N., & Varner, F. (2013) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9962-0 · Cited by 65
Why is working memory performance unstable? A review of 21 factors
Blasiman, R. N., & Was, C. A. (2018) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1472 · Cited by 65
Ray, R., & Rosow, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Contemporary Ethnography · doi:10.1177/0891241611431700 · Cited by 60
The Burden of Proof: A Quantitative Study of High-Achieving Black Collegians
Strayhorn, T. L. (2009) · Journal of African American Studies · doi:10.1007/s12111-008-9059-0 · Cited by 58
Phelan, S. M., Bauer, K. W., Bradley, D., Bradley, S. M., Haller, I. V., Mundi, M. S., Finney Rutten, L. J., Schroeder, D. R., Fischer, K., & Croghan, I. (2022) · Obesity Science & Practice · doi:10.1002/osp4.553 · Cited by 57
“These experiences may trigger identity threat, or the response to feeling that one's social identity is at risk of being devalued or viewed in terms of a group stereotype.(29) Social identities are the groups and categories that make up the way people see themselves and believe they are seen by others.”
BackgroundNguyen, H.-H. D., O'Neal, A., & Ryan, A. M. (2003) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1603_5 · Cited by 56
McKay, P. F., Doverspike, D., Bowen-Hilton, D., & McKay, Q. D. (2003) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1025062703113 · Cited by 53
Stereotype threat and the evaluative context of communication
McGlone, M. S., & Pfiester, R. A. (2015) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x14562609 · Cited by 45
James, D. (2017) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-016-0269-1 · Cited by 44
Boutin-Foster, C., Offidani, E., Kanna, B., Ogedegbe, G., Ravenell, J., Scott, E., Rodriguez, A., Ramos, R., Michelen, W., Gerber, L. M., et al. (2016) · Ethnicity & Disease · doi:10.18865/ed.26.1.51 · Cited by 41
Should Some Knowledge Be Forbidden? The Case of Cognitive Differences Research
Kourany, J. A. (2016) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/687863 · Cited by 39
Sewasew, D., & Koester, L. S. (2019) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.05.010 · Cited by 38
Woolf, K., McManus, I. C., Gill, D., & Dacre, J. (2009) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/1472-6920-9-35 · Cited by 37
Schenke, K., Nguyen, T., Watts, T. W., Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000165 · Cited by 34
Engaging Children and Parents to Code Together Using the ScratchJr App
Govind, M., Relkin, E., & Bers, M. U. (2020) · Visitor Studies · doi:10.1080/10645578.2020.1732184 · Cited by 34
Martinez, A. Y. (2016) · Performing Antiracist Pedagogy in Rhetoric, Writing, and Communication · doi:10.37514/atd-b.2016.0933.2.03 · Cited by 38
Binning, K. R., Cook, J. E., Greenaway, V. P., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2021) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12461 · Cited by 25
Promoting Achievement for Community College STEM Students through Equity-Minded Practices
Varty, A. K. (2022) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.21-09-0237 · Cited by 24
Moritz, S., Spirandelli, K., Happach, I., Lion, D., & Berna, F. (2018) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617718000097 · Cited by 17
Barrie, R. E., Langrehr, K., Jerémie-Brink, G., Alder, N., Hewitt, A., & Thomas, A. (2016) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2015.1129494 · Cited by 17
Motivated cultural worldview adherence and culturally loaded test performance
Landau, M. J., Greenberg, J., & Rothschild, Z. K. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208329630 · Cited by 17
Engineering Motivation Using the Belief-Expectancy-Control Framework
E. Clark, R., & Saxberg, B. (2018) · Interdisciplinary Education and Psychology · doi:10.31532/interdiscipeducpsychol.2.1.004 · Cited by 17
Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms
Peters, U. (2023) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/715001 · Cited by 13
How the Subjective Relationship Between the Self, Others, and a Task Drives Interest
Master, A., Butler, L. P., & Walton, G. M. (2017) · The Science of Interest · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55509-6_11 · Cited by 11
Pahlke, E., & Goble, P. (2015) · International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.92151-2 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Steele, Claude M.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1997-06
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 613-629
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W4233188495
- Cited by
- 6,770
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 203 · 2025: 228 · 2024: 236 · 2023: 215 · 2022: 229 · 2021: 309 · 2020: 377 · 2019: 349 · 2018: 349 · 2017: 324 · 2016: 337 · 2015: 361 · 2014: 341 · 2013: 338 · 2012: 316
- FWCI
- 206.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh051977-04)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH51977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Career Development and Diversity
- Keywords
- stereotypes, intellectual identity, academic performance, threats, stereotype threat, self-concept
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Adolescent, Black or African American, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Psychological Theory, Social Identification, Stereotyping, Students, Women
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
