Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis: Management Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Thyrotoxicosis has multiple etiologies, manifestations, and potential therapies. Appropriate treatment requires an accurate diagnosis and is influenced by coexisting medical conditions and patient preference. This article describes evidence-based clinical guidelines for the management of thyrotoxicosis that would be useful to generalist and subspeciality physicians and others providing care for patients with this condition. METHODS: The development of these guidelines was commissioned by the American Thyroid Association in association with the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. The American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists assembled a task force of expert clinicians who authored this report. The task force examined relevant literature using a systematic PubMed search supplemented with additional published materials. An evidence-based medicine approach that incorporated the knowledge and experience of the panel was used to develop the text and a series of specific recommendations. The strength of the recommendations and the quality of evidence supporting each was rated according to the approach recommended by the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation Group. RESULTS: Clinical topics addressed include the initial evaluation and management of thyrotoxicosis; management of Graves' hyperthyroidism using radioactive iodine, antithyroid drugs, or surgery; management of toxic multinodular goiter or toxic adenoma using radioactive iodine or surgery; Graves' disease in children, adolescents, or pregnant patients; subclinical hyperthyroidism; hyperthyroidism in patients with Graves' ophthalmopathy; and management of other miscellaneous causes of thyrotoxicosis. CONCLUSIONS: One hundred evidence-based recommendations were developed to aid in the care of patients with thyrotoxicosis and to share what the task force believes is current, rational, and optimal medical practice.
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A long-term increase in all-cause and vascular mortality has been detected in patients with overt hyperthyroidism after treatment with ATDs and RAI.
“A long-term increase in all-cause and vascular mortality has been detected in patients with overt hyperthyroidism after treatment with ATDs and RAI [4] .”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
The risk of cancer death after RAI was not significant in the majority of studies that assessed this risk.
“The risk of cancer death after RAI was not significant in the majority of studies that assessed this risk [4] .”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
ATDs are associated with a variety of side effects that include rare but potentially life-threatening complications.
“ATDs are associated with a variety of side effects that include rare but potentially life-threatening complications [4,115,116] .”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
Minor allergic reactions may be controlled with antihistamine treatment.
“Minor allergic reactions may be controlled with antihistamine treatment [4] .”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
In experienced hands, the risk of permanent hypoparathyroidism and recurrent laryngeal nerve damage after thyroidectomy is less than 1-2%.
“However, in experienced hands, this risk is less than 1-2% [4] .”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
Serum TSH is the most sensitive test for the diagnosis and severity assessment of subclinical hyperthyroidism.
“Serum TSH is the most sensitive test for the diagnosis and severity assessment of SHyper [1,4,15,16] .”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
Measurement of total T3 is frequently preferred in clinical practice because assays estimating free T3 are less well validated than those evaluating free T4.
“Measurement of TT 3 is frequently preferred in clinical practice because assays estimating FT 3 are less well validated than those evaluating FT 4 [4,16] .”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
This risk is probably due to the consequences of prior severe hyperthyroidism rather than to RAI or ATDs.
“However, this risk is probably due to the consequences of prior severe hyperthyroidism rather than to RAI or ATDs.”
From The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (2015) · cites this paper as [4]
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Ross, D. S., Burch, H. B., Cooper, D. S., Greenlee, M. C., Laurberg, P., Maia, A. L., Rivkees, S. A., Samuels, M., Sosa, J. A., Stan, M. N., et al. (2016) · Thyroid® · doi:10.1089/thy.2016.0229 · Cited by 2,938 · see citing works
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- Authors
- The American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Taskforce on Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis, Bahn, R. S., Burch, H. B., Cooper, D. S., Garber, J. R., Greenlee, M. C., Klein, I., Laurberg, P., McDougall, I. R., Montori, V. M., Rivkees, S. A., Ross, D. S., Sosa, J. A., & Stan, M. N.
- Affiliations
- Mayo Clinic (US)
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Harvard Vanguard Medical Associates (US)
- Western Slope Endocrinology, Grand Junction, Colorado.
- North Shore University Hospital (US)
- Aalborg University Hospital (DK)
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nutrition, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.
- Yale University (US)
- Massachusetts General Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bahn, Rebecca S.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Thyroid
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-06
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 593-646
- ISSN
- 1050-7256 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-9077
- OpenAlex
- W3022564440
- Cited by
- 898
- References
- 350
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 102 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 74 · 2013: 68 · 2012: 65
- FWCI
- 57.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Thyroid (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Thyroid Disorders and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Ophthalmology and Eye Disorders
- Keywords
- thyrotoxicosis, hyperthyroidism, Graves' disease, Graves' ophthalmopathy, radioactive iodine, antithyroid drugs, thyroid surgery, toxic multinodular goiter, toxic adenoma, subclinical hyperthyroidism, pediatric Graves' disease, treatment guidelines
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adrenergic beta-Antagonists, Child, Female, Graves Disease, Humans, Hyperthyroidism, Iodine Radioisotopes, Pregnancy, Antithyroid Agents, Thyroid Crisis, Thyroid Hormones, Thyroidectomy, Thyrotoxicosis, Evidence-Based Medicine
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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