Beautiful Faces Have Variable Reward Value
Open accessAbstract
The brain circuitry processing rewarding and aversive stimuli is hypothesized to be at the core of motivated behavior. In this study, discrete categories of beautiful faces are shown to have differing reward values and to differentially activate reward circuitry in human subjects. In particular, young heterosexual males rate pictures of beautiful males and females as attractive, but exert effort via a keypress procedure only to view pictures of attractive females. Functional magnetic resonance imaging at 3 T shows that passive viewing of beautiful female faces activates reward circuitry, in particular the nucleus accumbens. An extended set of subcortical and paralimbic reward regions also appear to follow aspects of the keypress rather than the rating procedures, suggesting that reward circuitry function does not include aesthetic assessment.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Facial attractiveness is known to elicit striatal activation.
“Facial attractiveness is known to elicit striatal activation (38)”
From Oxytocin enhances brain reward system responses in men viewing the face of their female partner (2013) · cites this paper as [38]
Happy facial expressions can be treated as rewarding because they are desirable cues that trigger approach behavior.
“happy faces can be seen as desirable stimuli that elicit approach behaviors, and thus can be conceptualized as rewarding”
From A systematic review of fMRI reward paradigms used in studies of adolescents vs. adults: The impact of task design and implications for understanding neurodevelopment (2013) · cites this paper as Aharon et al., 2001
Similar activation patterns have been seen in response to pictures of romantic partners, beautiful faces, and sexual stimuli, suggesting a link between brain reward circuits and attachment.
“Similar activation patterns have been seen in response to pictures of romantic partners (22), beautiful faces (25) and sexual stimuli (26), suggesting a link between brain reward circuits and attachment.”
From What’s in a smile? Maternal brain responses to infant facial cues (2008) · cites this paper as [25]
The difference in striatal and midbrain responses between happy, neutral and sad affect is consistent with other studies showing preferential activation for more appetitive or rewarding stimuli, including faces rated as more beautiful or monetary reward.
“The difference in striatal and midbrain responses seen in this study between happy, neutral and sad affect (Table 3; Figures 4 and 5) is consistent with other studies which show preferential activation for more appetitive or rewarding stimuli (54), including faces rated as more beautiful (25) or monetary reward (55).”
From What’s in a smile? Maternal brain responses to infant facial cues (2008) · cites this paper as [25]
Natural reward-related stimuli, including food, sex, and faces of one's sexual partner or child, activate the brain's reward system.
“Natural reward-related stimuli, including food, sex, and faces of one’s sexual partner or child, activate the brain’s “reward” system (Aharon et al., 2001; Delgado et al., 2000; Melis and Argiolas, 1995; Stoeckel et al., 2008; Strathearn et al., 2008).”
From The maternal brain and its plasticity in humans (2016) · cites this paper as Aharon et al., 2001
The observation of social stimuli in general (e.g., smiling faces) increases activity in medial prefrontal cortex and striatum in cases where the social stimuli have a high value.
“The observation of social stimuli in general (e.g., smiling faces) increases activity in medial prefrontal cortex 33, 34 and striatum in cases where the social stimuli have a high value (e.g., participants will exert effort or pay to view an attractive face) 35–38.”
From The social brain and reward: Social information processing in the human striatum (2014) · cites this paper as [35]
Cites
Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain
Talairach, J., & Tournoux, P. (1988) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,798 · see citing works
A neural substrate of prediction and reward
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.275.5306.1593 · Cited by 9,388 · see citing works
The fusiform face area: a module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception
Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-11-04302.1997 · Cited by 7,738 · see citing works
Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain
Laitinen, L. (1989) · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/0303-8467(89)90128-5 · Cited by 7,565 · see citing works
Well-being : the foundations of hedonic psychology
Kahneman, D. J., Diener, E. F., & Schwarz, N. (1999) · Cited by 7,472 · see citing works
Olds, J., & Milner, P. (1954) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0058775 · Cited by 3,176 · see citing works
Gallistel, C. R. (1990) · Cited by 2,571 · see citing works
Anticipation of Increasing Monetary Reward Selectively Recruits Nucleus Accumbens
Knutson, B., Adams, C. M., Fong, G. W., & Hommer, D. (2001) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.21-16-j0002.2001 · Cited by 2,244 · see citing works
A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions
Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., & Dolan, R. J. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/383812a0 · Cited by 2,013 · see citing works
Abstract reward and punishment representations in the human orbitofrontal cortex
O'Doherty, J., Kringelbach, M. L., Rolls, E. T., Hornak, J., & Andrews, C. (2001) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/82959 · Cited by 2,003 · see citing works
Food reward: brain substrates of wanting and liking
Berridge, K. C. (1996) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/0149-7634(95)00033-b · Cited by 1,901 · see citing works
Response and Habituation of the Human Amygdala during Visual Processing of Facial Expression
Breiter, H. C., Etcoff, N. L., Whalen, P. J., Kennedy, W. A., Rauch, S. L., Buckner, R. L., Strauss, M. M., Hyman, S. E., & Rosen, B. R. (1996) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80219-6 · Cited by 1,711 · see citing works
Self-citationThe amygdala: Neurobiological aspects of emotion, memory, and mental dysfunction.
Aggleton, J. P. (1992) · Wiley-Liss eBooks · Cited by 1,536 · see citing works
Cabanac, M. (1971) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.173.4002.1103 · Cited by 1,521 · see citing works
Neuronal Coding of Prediction Errors
Schultz, W., & Dickinson, A. (2000) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.473 · Cited by 1,427 · see citing works
FMRI visualization of brain activity during a monetary incentive delay task
Knutson, B., Westdorp, A., Kaiser, E., & Hommer, D. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0593 · Cited by 1,414 · see citing works
Functional imaging of neural responses to expectancy and experience of monetary gains and losses
Breiter, H. C., Aharon, I., Kahneman, D., Dale, A., & Shizgal, P. (2001) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00303-8 · Cited by 1,404 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness
Perrett, D. I., Lee, K. J., Penton‐Voak, I. S., Rowland, D., Yoshikawa, S., Burt, D. M., Henzi, S. P., Castles, D. L., & Akamatsu, S. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/29772 · Cited by 1,331 · see citing works
Rolls, E. T. (1998) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198524649.001.0001 · Cited by 1,314 · see citing works
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-5080 · Cited by 1,276 · see citing works
Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion
Breiter, H. C., Gollub, R. L., Weisskoff, R. M., Kennedy, D. N., Makris, N., Berke, J. D., Goodman, J. M., Kantor, H. L., Gastfriend, D. R., Riorden, J. P., et al. (1997) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80374-8 · Cited by 1,270 · see citing works
Self-citationChanges in brain activity related to eating chocolate: From pleasure to aversion
Small, D. M. (2001) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/124.9.1720 · Cited by 1,179 · see citing works
Tracking the Hemodynamic Responses to Reward and Punishment in the Striatum
Delgado, M. R., Nystrom, L. E., Fissell, C., Noll, D. C., & Fiez, J. A. (2000) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.2000.84.6.3072 · Cited by 1,116 · see citing works
Grammer, K., & Thornhill, R. (1994) · Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.1037/0735-7036.108.3.233 · Cited by 1,110 · see citing works
Dissociation Of Working Memory from Decision Making within the Human Prefrontal Cortex
Bechara, A., Damásio, H., Tranel, D., & Anderson, S. W. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-01-00428.1998 · Cited by 1,055 · see citing works
The neural basis of romantic love
Bartels, A., & Zeki, S. (2000) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200011270-00046 · Cited by 1,020 · see citing works
Mesolimbocortical and nigrostriatal dopamine responses to salient non-reward events
Horvitz, J. C. (2000) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(00)00019-1 · Cited by 967 · see citing works
Rogers, R. D., Owen, A. M., Middleton, H. C., Williams, E., Pickard, J. D., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (1999) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.19-20-09029.1999 · Cited by 865 · see citing works
Facial shape and judgements of female attractiveness
Perrett, D. I., May, K. A., & Yoshikawa, S. (1994) · Nature · doi:10.1038/368239a0 · Cited by 858 · see citing works
Menstrual cycle alters face preference
Penton‐Voak, I. S., Perrett, D. I., Castles, D. L., Kobayashi, T., Burt, D. M., Murray, L. K., & Minamisawa, R. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/21557 · Cited by 836 · see citing works
Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A., Barbee, A. P., Druen, P. B., & Wu, C. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.261 · Cited by 833 · see citing works
Wyvell, C. L., & Berridge, K. C. (2000) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.20-21-08122.2000 · Cited by 764 · see citing works
Dissociable Neural Responses in Human Reward Systems
Elliott, R., Friston, K. J., & Dolan, R. J. (2000) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.20-16-06159.2000 · Cited by 740 · see citing works
Hamermesh, D. S., & Biddle, J. E. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4518 · Cited by 721 · see citing works
Predictability modulates human brain response to reward
Berns, G. S., McClure, S. M., Pagnoni, G., & Montague, P. R. (2001) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.21-08-02793.2001 · Cited by 711 · see citing works
Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in human ventral striatum correlates with euphoria
Drevets, W. C., Gautier, C., Price, J. C., Kupfer, D. J., Kinahan, P. E., Grace, A. A., Price, J. L., & Mathis, C. A. (2001) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(00)01038-6 · Cited by 706 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…the region of interest conventions described previously (Breiter et al., 1997) for the NAc, SLEA, amygdala, Data Analysis hypothalamus, VT, and GOb (BA 11/47) (Breiter et al., 2001), and Transformation of fMRI BOLD Data before the ventral striatum proximate to the NAc (Drevets et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodNeuroleptic-Induced "Anhedonia" in Rats: Pimozide Blocks Reward Quality of Food
Wise, R. A., Spindler, J., de Wit, H., & Gerberg, G. J. (1978) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.566469 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Functional magnetic resonance imaging of symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder
Breiter, H. C. (1996) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830070041008 · Cited by 626 · see citing works
Self-citationSchoenbaum, G., Chiba, A. A., & Gallagher, M. (1999) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.19-05-01876.1999 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Symmetry and Human Facial Attractiveness
Perrett, D. I., Burt, D. M., Penton‐Voak, I. S., Lee, K. J., Rowland, D., & Edwards, R. (1999) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(99)00014-8 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
Reward Circuitry Activation by Noxious Thermal Stimuli
Becerra, L. R., Breiter, H. C., Wise, R. A., González, R., & Borsook, D. (2001) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00533-5 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Self-citationNicotine-Induced Limbic Cortical Activation in the Human Brain: A Functional MRI Study
Stein, E. A., Pankiewicz, J., Harsch, H. H., Cho, J.-K., Fuller, S. A., Hoffmann, R. G., Hawkins, M., Rao, S. M., Bandettini, P. A., & Bloom, A. S. (1998) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.155.8.1009 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Infant preferences for attractive faces: Rudiments of a stereotype?
Langlois, J. H., Roggman, L. A., Casey, R. J., Ritter, J. M., Rieser-Danner, L. A., & Jenkins, V. (1987) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.23.3.363 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
Amygdala response to facial expressions in children and adults.
Thomas, K. M., Drevets, W. C., Whalen, P. J., Eccard, C. H., Dahl, R. E., Ryan, N. D., & Casey, B. J. (2001) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(00)01066-0 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime
Charlson, P., Kant, I., & Goldthwait, J. T. (1961) · Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism · doi:10.2307/427367 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Covert Visual Attention Modulates Face-Specific Activity in the Human Fusiform Gyrus: fMRI Study
Wojciulik, E., Kanwisher, N., & Driver, J. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.79.3.1574 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Cabanac, M. (1979) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/410981 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Francis, S., Rolls, E. T., Bowtell, R. W., McGlone, F. P., O’Doherty, J. P., Browning, A., Clare, S., & Smith, E. (1999) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199902250-00003 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Gender and attractiveness biases in hiring decisions: Are more experienced managers less biased?
Marlowe, C. M., Schneider, S. L., & Nelson, C. E. (1996) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.1.11 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Aversive gustatory stimulation activates limbic circuits in humans
Zald, D. H. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.6.1143 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Brain Regions Responsive to Novelty in the Absence of Awareness
Berns, G. S., Cohen, J. D., & Mintun, M. A. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.276.5316.1272 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces.
Langlois, J. H., Ritter, J. M., Roggman, L. A., & Vaughn, L. S. (1991) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.27.1.79 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Newborn infants prefer attractive faces
Slater, A. M., der Schulenburg, C. V., Brown, E., Badenoch, M., Butterworth, G. E., Parsons, S., & Samuels, C. A. (1998) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/s0163-6383(98)90011-x · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Morphological analysis of dendritic spine development in primary cultures of hippocampal neurons
Papa, M., Bundman, M. C., Greenberger, V., & Segal, M. (1995) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.15-01-00001.1995 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Reward learning: reinforcement, incentives, and expectations
Berridge, K. C. (2000) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(00)80022-5 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Phillips, M. L., Williams, L. M., Senior, C., Bullmore, E. T., Brammer, M. J., Andrew, C., Williams, S., & David, A. S. (1999) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/s0925-4927(99)00031-1 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Attractiveness and Income for Men and Women in Management1
Frieze, I. H., Olson, J. E., & Russell, J. (1991) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00458.x · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Activation of the human brain by monetary reward
Thut, G., Schultz, W., Roelcke, U., Nienhusmeier, M., Missimer, J. H., Maguire, R. P., & Leenders, K. L. (1997) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199703240-00033 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
MRI-Based Topographic Parcellation of Human Cerebral White Matter and Nuclei
Makris, N., Meyer, J. W., Bates, J. F., Yeterian, E. H., Kennedy, D. N., & Caviness, V. S. (1999) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1998.0384 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Criteria of facial attractiveness in five populations
Jones, D., & Hill, K. R. (1993) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/bf02692202 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Brain Reward Circuitry in the Human
BREITER, H. C., & Rosen, B. R. (1999) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09287.x · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Self-citationOBSERVATIONS ON THE FEELING OF THE BEAUTIFUL AND THE SUBLIME
(1961) · Philosophical Books · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0149.1961.tb01270.x · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Leben, W. R. (1978) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-267350-4.50011-x · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Neural basis of utility estimation
Shizgal, P. (1997) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(97)80008-6 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Perceived and Actual Discrimination in the Salaries of Male and Female Managers1
Frieze, I. H., Olson, J. E., & Good, D. C. (1990) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb00377.x · Cited by 154 · see citing works
When does duration matter in judgment and decision making?
Ariely, D., & Loewenstein, G. F. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.129.4.508 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Self-citationRobledo, P., & Koob, G. F. (1993) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0166-4328(93)90112-4 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Neuroanatomical correlates of the assessment of facial attractiveness
Nakamura, K., Kawashima, R., Nagumo, S., Ito, K., Sugiura, M., Kato, T., Nakamura, A., Hatano, K., Kubota, K., Fukuda, H., et al. (1998) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199803090-00035 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Effects of excitotoxic lesions of the basal forebrain on MFB self-stimulation
Arvanitogiannis, A. (1996) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(95)02157-4 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Flores, C., Arvanitogiannis, A., & Shizgal, P. (1997) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(97)02288-2 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Fos expression following self-stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex
Arvanitogiannis, A., Tzschentke, T., Riscaldino, L., Wise, R. A., & Shizgal, P. (2000) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(99)00120-5 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Limbic System, Basal Ganglia, and Dopaminergic Neurons
Louilot, A., Taghzouti, K., Simon, H., & Moal, M. L. (2008) · Brain Behavior and Evolution · doi:10.1159/000115920 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Nakahara, D., Ishida, Y., Nakamura, M., Kuwahara, I., Todaka, K., & Nishimori, T. (1999) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(98)00510-7 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Ruskin, J. (1997) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Activation of striatum and amygdala during reward conditioning: An FMRI study
Breiter, H. C., Berke, J. D., Kennedy, W. A., et al. (1996) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(96)80222-9 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationMemory for the changing cost of a reward is mediated by the sublenticular extended amygdala
Brown, V. J., Latimer, M. P., & Winn, P. (1996) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/0361-9230(95)02088-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Infant preferences for attractive faces
Langlois, J. H., Roggman, L. A., Casey, R. J., Ritter, J. M., & Jenkins, V. (1986) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/s0163-6383(86)80217-x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Bush, G., Jiang, A., Talavage, T. M., & Kennedy, D. (1996) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(96)80057-7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Functional connectivity in the resting brain: a network analysis of the default mode hypothesis
Greicius, M. D., Krasnow, B., Reiss, A. L., & Menon, V. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0135058100 · Cited by 6,358 · see citing works
The reward circuit: linking primate anatomy and human imaging
Haber, S. N., & Knutson, B. (2010) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2009.129 · Cited by 3,718 · see citing works
A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking
Steinberg, L. (2008) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002 · Cited by 3,644 · see citing works
Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards
McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1100907 · Cited by 3,089 · see citing works
The human orbitofrontal cortex: linking reward to hedonic experience
Kringelbach, M. L. (2005) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1747 · Cited by 2,180 · see citing works
KRINGELBACH, M. (2004) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.03.006 · Cited by 1,977 · see citing works
Neural systems for recognizing emotion
Adolphs, R. (2002) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(02)00301-x · Cited by 1,933 · see citing works
Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour
Adolphs, R. (2003) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1056 · Cited by 1,657 · see citing works
Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: Insights from neuroimaging
O’Doherty, J. P. (2004) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2004.10.016 · Cited by 1,426 · see citing works
The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love
Bartels, A., & Zeki, S. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.11.003 · Cited by 1,448 · see citing works
NELSON, E. E., LEIBENLUFT, E., McCLURE, E. B., & PINE, D. S. (2005) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291704003915 · Cited by 1,075 · see citing works
The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli
Zald, D. H. (2003) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0165-0173(02)00248-5 · Cited by 1,062 · see citing works
Deep Brain Stimulation to Reward Circuitry Alleviates Anhedonia in Refractory Major Depression
Schlaepfer, T. E., Cohen, M. X., Frick, C., Kosel, M., Brodesser, D., Axmacher, N., Joe, A. Y., Kreft, M., Lenartz, D., & Sturm, V. (2008) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301408 · Cited by 1,027 · see citing works
Reward, Motivation, and Emotion Systems Associated With Early-Stage Intense Romantic Love
Aron, A., Fisher, H., Mashek, D. J., Strong, G., Li, H., & Brown, L. L. (2005) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00838.2004 · Cited by 963 · see citing works
Computational roles for dopamine in behavioural control
Montague, P. R., Hyman, S. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2004) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03015 · Cited by 966 · see citing works
depue, R. A., & morrone-strupinsky, J. V. (2005) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x05000063 · Cited by 958 · see citing works
Temporal Prediction Errors in a Passive Learning Task Activate Human Striatum
McClure, S. M., Berns, G. S., & Montague, P. R. (2003) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00154-5 · Cited by 917 · see citing works
Beauty in a smile: the role of medial orbitofrontal cortex in facial attractiveness
O’Doherty, J., Winston, J., Critchley, H., Perrett, D., Burt, D. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2003) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00145-8 · Cited by 898 · see citing works
Processing of Social and Monetary Rewards in the Human Striatum
Izuma, K., Saito, D. N., & Sadato, N. (2008) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.03.020 · Cited by 855 · see citing works
Sescousse, G., Caldú, X., Segura, B., & Dreher, J.-C. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.02.002 · Cited by 782 · see citing works
Hare, T. A., O'Doherty, J., Camerer, C. F., Schultz, W., & Rangel, A. (2008) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1309-08.2008 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
The neurobiology of rewards and values in social decision making
Ruff, C. C., & Fehr, E. (2014) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3776 · Cited by 716 · see citing works
Toward a syndrome model of addiction: Multiple expressions, common etiology
Shaffer, H. J., LaPlante, D. A., LaBrie, R. A., Kidman, R. C., Donato, A. N., & Stanton, M. V. (2004) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/10673220490905705 · Cited by 682 · see citing works
Neuropeptidergic regulation of affiliative behavior and social bonding in animals
Lim, M. M., & Young, L. J. (2006) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.028 · Cited by 624 · see citing works
Hornak, J., O'Doherty, J., Bramham, J., Rolls, E. T., Morris, R. G., Bullock, P. R., & Polkey, C. E. (2004) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892904322926791 · Cited by 603 · see citing works
Intertemporal choice – toward an integrative framework
Berns, G. S., Laibson, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.011 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding
Tamir, D. I., & Mitchell, J. P. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1202129109 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Risky business: the neuroeconomics of decision making under uncertainty
Platt, M. L., & Huettel, S. A. (2008) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn2062 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cognition, and general intelligence.
Geary, D. C. (2005) · doi:10.1037/10871-000 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
The neural substrates of reward processing in humans: the modern role of FMRI
McClure, S. M., York, M. K., & Montague, P. R. (2004) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858404263526 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Age differences in affective decision making as indexed by performance on the Iowa gambling task
Cauffman, E., Shulman, E. P., Steinberg, L., Claus, E., Banich, M. T., Graham, S., & Woolard, J. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016128 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Effective Connectivity within the Distributed Cortical Network for Face Perception
Fairhall, S. L., & Ishai, A. (2007) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhl148 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
Ventral striatal activation during reward anticipation correlates with impulsivity in alcoholics
Beck, A., Schlagenhauf, F., Wüstenberg, T., Hein, J., Kienast, T., Kahnt, T., Schmack, K., Hägele, C., Knutson, B., Heinz, A., et al. (2009) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.04.035 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
What’s in a smile? Maternal brain responses to infant facial cues
Strathearn, L., Li, J., Fonagy, P., & Montague, P. R. (2008) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1566 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Dorsal striatum responses to reward and punishment: effects of valence and magnitude manipulations
DELGADO, M. R., LOCKE, H. M., STENGER, V. A., & FIEZ, J. A. (2003) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.3.1.27 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
Spreckelmeyer, K. N., Krach, S., Kohls, G., Rademacher, L., Irmak, A., Konrad, K., Kircher, T., & Gründer, G. (2009) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsn051 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Brady, W. J., Crockett, M. J., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620917336 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Romantic love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice
Fisher, H. E., Aron, A., & Brown, L. L. (2006) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1938 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Modulation of aesthetic value by semantic context: An fMRI study
Kirk, U., Skov, M., Hulme, O., Christensen, M. S., & Zeki, S. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.10.009 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
The origins of altruism in offspring care.
Preston, S. D. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0031755 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Social Influence Modulates the Neural Computation of Value
Zaki, J., Schirmer, J., & Mitchell, J. P. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611411057 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
Social and monetary reward learning engage overlapping neural substrates
Lin, A., Adolphs, R., & Rangel, A. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr006 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Dissociation of neural networks for anticipation and consumption of monetary and social rewards
Rademacher, L., Krach, S., Kohls, G., Irmak, A., Gründer, G., & Spreckelmeyer, K. N. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.089 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Oxytocin enhances brain reward system responses in men viewing the face of their female partner
Scheele, D., Wille, A., Kendrick, K. M., Stoffel-Wagner, B., Becker, B., Güntürkün, O., Maier, W., & Hurlemann, R. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1314190110 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
An integrative theoretical framework for understanding sexual motivation, arousal, and behavior
Toates, F. (2009) · Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224490902747768 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Feeling the Pain of Social Loss
Panksepp, J. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1091062 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Distinct Value Signals in Anterior and Posterior Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex
Smith, D. V., Hayden, B. Y., Truong, T.-K., Song, A. W., Platt, M. L., & Huettel, S. A. (2010) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3319-09.2010 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Neurobiological Correlates of Social Conformity and Independence During Mental Rotation
Berns, G. S., Chappelow, J., Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skurski, M. E., & Richards, J. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.012 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Neurobiological mechanisms of anhedonia
Gorwood, P. (2008) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2008.10.3/pgorwood · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Opposing BOLD responses to reciprocated and unreciprocated altruism in putative reward pathways
Rilling, J. K., Sanfey, A. G., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2004) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200411150-00022 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
The maternal brain and its plasticity in humans
Kim, P., Strathearn, L., & Swain, J. E. (2016) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.08.001 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Towards a sensorimotor aesthetics of performing art
Calvo-Merino, B., Jola, C., Glaser, D. E., & Haggard, P. (2008) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2007.11.003 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Bikinis Instigate Generalized Impatience in Intertemporal Choice
Van den Bergh, B., Dewitte, S., & Warlop, L. (2008) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/525505 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
A specific and rapid neural signature for parental instinct
Kringelbach, M. L., Lehtonen, A., Squire, S., Harvey, A. G., Craske, M. G., Holliday, I. E., Green, A. L., Aziz, T. Z., Hansen, P. C., Cornelissen, P. L., et al. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001664 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
The social brain and reward: Social information processing in the human striatum
Bhanji, J. P., & Delgado, M. R. (2014) · WIREs Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1266 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
My face in yours: visuo-tactile facial stimulation influences sense of identity
Sforza, A., Bufalari, I., Haggard, P., & Aglioti, S. M. (2010) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910903205503 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
The neural response to facial attractiveness
Chatterjee, A., Thomas, A., Smith, S. E., & Aguirre, G. K. (2009) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0014430 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Neural circuitry underlying affective response to peer feedback in adolescence
Guyer, A. E., Choate, V. R., Pine, D. S., & Nelson, E. E. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr043 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Food for thought: hedonic experience beyond homeostasis in the human brain
Kringelbach, M. L. (2004) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.04.035 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Probing the neural correlates of anticipated peer evaluation in adolescence
Guyer, A. E., McClure-Tone, E. B., Shiffrin, N. D., Pine, D. S., & Nelson, E. E. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01313.x · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Reward circuitry function in autism during face anticipation and outcomes
Dichter, G. S., Richey, J. A., Rittenberg, A. M., Sabatino, A., & Bodfish, J. W. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1221-1 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Emotional imagery: Assessing pleasure and arousal in the brain's reward circuitry
Costa, V. D., Lang, P. J., Sabatinelli, D., Versace, F., & Bradley, M. M. (2010) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20948 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Social attention and the brain
Klein, J. T., Shepherd, S. V., & Platt, M. L. (2009) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.010 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Papies, E. K., Pronk, T. M., Keesman, M., & Barsalou, L. W. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038032 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
The rewarding nature of social interactions.
Krach, S. (2010) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00022 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Kim, H., Shimojo, S., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2011) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq145 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
ALE meta-analysis on facial judgments of trustworthiness and attractiveness
Bzdok, D., Langner, R., Caspers, S., Kurth, F., Habel, U., Zilles, K., Laird, A., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2011) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-010-0287-4 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Social and monetary reward processing in autism spectrum disorders
Delmonte, S., Balsters, J. H., McGrath, J., Fitzgerald, J., Brennan, S., Fagan, A. J., & Gallagher, L. (2012) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-3-7 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Richards, J. M., Plate, R. C., & Ernst, M. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.004 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Localization of asymmetric brain function in emotion and depression
Herrington, J. D., Heller, W., Mohanty, A., Engels, A. S., Banich, M. T., Webb, A. G., & Miller, G. A. (2010) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00958.x · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Brief Report: Selective Social Anhedonia in High Functioning Autism
Chevallier, C., Grèzes, J., Molesworth, C., Berthoz, S., & Happé, F. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1364-0 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Economic principles motivating social attention in humans
Hayden, B. Y., Parikh, P. C., Deaner, R. O., & Platt, M. L. (2007) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0368 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Being liked activates primary reward and midline self‐related brain regions
Davey, C. G., Allen, N. B., Harrison, B. J., Dwyer, D. B., & Yücel, M. (2010) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20895 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
The plausibility of sugar addiction and its role in obesity and eating disorders
Benton, D. (2010) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2009.12.001 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Platek, S. M., & Kemp, S. M. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.12.027 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Borderline personality disorder: a dysregulation of the endogenous opioid system?
Bandelow, B., Schmahl, C., Falkai, P., & Wedekind, D. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0018095 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Neuropeptides and the social brain: potential rodent models of autism
Lim, M. M., Bielsky, I. F., & Young, L. J. (2005) · International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.05.006 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Blood, A. J., Iosifescu, D. V., Makris, N., Perlis, R. H., Kennedy, D. N., Dougherty, D. D., Kim, B. W., Lee, M. J., Wu, S., Lee, S., et al. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013945 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial rewards and social networks in the human brain
Fareri, D. S., & Delgado, M. R. (2014) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858414521869 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Caria, A., Venuti, P., & de Falco, S. (2011) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr084 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Affective neural response to restricted interests in autism spectrum disorders
Cascio, C. J., Foss‐Feig, J. H., Heacock, J., Schauder, K. B., Loring, W. A., Rogers, B. P., Pryweller, J. R., Newsom, C. R., Cockhren, J., Cao, A., et al. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12147 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Altered neural response of the appetitive emotional system in cocaine addiction: an fMRI Study
Asensio, S., Romero, M. J., Palau, C., Sanchez, A., Senabre, I., Morales, J. L., Carcelen, R., & Romero, F. J. (2010) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2010.00230.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Tsukiura, T., & Cabeza, R. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.03.013 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of social influence
Mason, M. F., Dyer, R., & Norton, M. I. (2009) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.04.001 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Sleep deprivation alters valuation signals in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex
Libedinsky, C., Smith, D. V., Teng, C. S., Namburi, P., Chen, V. W., Huettel, S. A., & Chee, M. W. L. (2011) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00070 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Striepens, N., Matusch, A., Kendrick, K. M., Mihov, Y., Elmenhorst, D., Becker, B., Lang, M., Coenen, H. H., Maier, W., Hurlemann, R., et al. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.09.026 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
A review of infants’ and children’s facial cues’ influence on adults’ perceptions and behaviors.
Franklin, P., & Volk, A. A. (2018) · Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1037/ebs0000108 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The pleasure of food: Underlying brain mechanisms of eating and other pleasures
Kringelbach, M. L. (2015) · Flavour · doi:10.1186/s13411-014-0029-2 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Face cells in orbitofrontal cortex represent social categories
Barat, E., Wirth, S., & Duhamel, J.-R. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1806165115 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Corticostriatal pathways contribute to the natural time course of positive mood
Admon, R., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2015) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms10065 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Eckstrand, K. L., Forbes, E. E., Bertocci, M. A., Chase, H. W., Greenberg, T., Lockovich, J., Stiffler, R., Aslam, H. A., Graur, S., Bebko, G., et al. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0864 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Cooper, J. C., Dunne, S., Furey, T., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2012) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2558-12.2012 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Cooper, J. C., Dunne, S., Furey, T., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2014) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht102 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Frontolimbic responses to emotional face memory: The neural correlates of first impressions
Satterthwaite, T. D., Wolf, D. H., Gur, R. C., Ruparel, K., Valdez, J. N., Gur, R. E., & Loughead, J. (2009) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20803 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Ainsworth, M., Sallet, J., Joly, O., Kyriazis, D., Kriegeskorte, N., Duncan, J., Schüffelgen, U., Rushworth, M. F. S., & Bell, A. H. (2021) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0870-20.2021 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Watanabe, K., Masaoka, Y., Kawamura, M., Yoshida, M., Koiwa, N., Yoshikawa, A., Kubota, S., Ida, M., Ono, K., & Izumizaki, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00687 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Masaoka, Y., Sugiyama, H., Yoshida, M., Yoshikawa, A., Honma, M., Koiwa, N., Kamijo, S., Watanabe, K., Kubota, S., Iizuka, N., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.709050 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Neural Representations of the Committed Romantic Partner in the Nucleus Accumbens
Ueda, R., & Abe, N. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211021854 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Male brain processing of the body odor of ovulating women compared to that of pregnant women
Habel, U., Regenbogen, C., Kammann, C., Stickel, S., & Chechko, N. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117733 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
- Authors
- Aharon, I., Etcoff, N., Ariely, D., Chabris, C. F., O'Connor, E., & Breiter, H. C.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Breiter, Hans C
- Venue
- Neuron
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2001-11
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 537-551
- ISSN
- 0896-6273 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1999689183
- Cited by
- 1,087
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 7.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Neuron (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service (00265, 09467)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- facial attractiveness, reward value, reward systems, nucleus accumbens, female faces, male faces, aesthetic judgment, paralimbic regions, motivated behavior
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Beauty, Brain, Brain Mapping, Face, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Motivation, Reward
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
