Pleasure Systems in the Brain

Berridge, Kent C.; Kringelbach, Morten L.

doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018

Cited by 1,730Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesMemory and Neural Mechanisms

Pleasure Systems in the Brain

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Berridge, Kent C., Kringelbach, Morten L.·2015·Neuron

DOI 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018PMC PMC4425246

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Abstract

Pleasure is mediated by well-developed mesocorticolimbic circuitry and serves adaptive functions. In affective disorders, anhedonia (lack of pleasure) or dysphoria (negative affect) can result from breakdowns of that hedonic system. Human neuroimaging studies indicate that surprisingly similar circuitry is activated by quite diverse pleasures, suggesting a common neural currency shared by all. Wanting for reward is generated by a large and distributed brain system. Liking, or pleasure itself, is generated by a smaller set of hedonic hot spots within limbic circuitry. Those hot spots also can be embedded in broader anatomical patterns of valence organization, such as in a keyboard pattern of nucleus accumbens generators for desire versus dread. In contrast, some of the best known textbook candidates for pleasure generators, including classic pleasure electrodes and the mesolimbic dopamine system, may not generate pleasure after all. These emerging insights into brain pleasure mechanisms may eventually facilitate better treatments for affective disorders.

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The modular/constitutive model holds that conscious sensations are generated by groups of neurons (modules) that can be small and localized elsewhere than the cortex.
“The central premise of the model is that conscious sensations are generated by groups of neurons (the modules) that can be small in relative terms and localized elsewhere than the cortex.”
From The function(s) of consciousness revisited: insights from a modular/constitutive model using vision as a test case (2026) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach (2015)
The section “Causal hedonic hotspots for hedonic enhancements” describes small, localized sites outside the cortex that can amplify pleasure-related ‘liking’ reactions. But “Evolutionary origins of brain systems for hedonic reactions” distinguishes those reactions from conscious feelings, which may require additional neural mechanisms. The paper therefore does not establish the claimed model of how conscious sensations generally are generated. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The core of the vertebrate brain has elaborated a dizzying number of centers for affective (emotional) consciousness: the habenula, basal forebrain, periaqueductal gray, parts of the reticular formation and more.
“As another illustration of extreme regional specialization, the core of the vertebrate brain has elaborated a dizzying number of centers for affective (emotional) consciousness: the habenula, basal forebrain, periaqueductal gray, parts of the reticular formation and more (Figure 3; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015; Feinberg and Mallatt, 2016a; Hu, 2016; Feinberg and Mallatt, 2018a; Siciliano et al.,”
From Phenomenal Consciousness and Emergence: Eliminating the Explanatory Gap (2020) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015
The section “Causal hedonic hotspots for hedonic enhancements” (page unavailable) describes affect-related sites distributed from forebrain to brainstem, supporting the general point that multiple regions contribute to emotion-related processing. But it identifies different sites from those listed in the claim and discusses hedonic reactions, not a set of centers for affective consciousness. The paper also distinguishes objective hedonic reactions from subjective experience in “A neuroscience of pleasure” (page unavailable). (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Evidence for modular generation of sensations comes from sub-cortical hotspots responsible for pleasure (liking rather than wanting).
“Evidence for this comes from the work of Berridge and Kringelbach (2015) on the sub-cortical hotspots responsible for sensations of pleasure (of liking rather than wanting)”
From The function(s) of consciousness revisited: insights from a modular/constitutive model using vision as a test case (2026) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach (2015)
The insula mediates states of anger, aggression, and social emotion.
“In addition, the insula has also been reported to mediate the states of anger, aggression, and social emotion [62,[67][68][69].”
From The Insular Cortex: An Interface Between Sensation, Emotion and Cognition (2024) · cites this paper as [67]
The sections on mapping pleasure discuss possible insula hedonic hotspots and correlations with pleasure ratings, but do not say that the insula mediates anger, aggression, or social emotion. Searches for those terms and related descriptions found no passage supporting the attributed claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The visual display could be constructed point-by-point by the action of separate modules, each acting as a hotspot.
“The visual display could then be constructed point-by-point by the action of separate modules, each acting as a hotspot.”
From The function(s) of consciousness revisited: insights from a modular/constitutive model using vision as a test case (2026) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach (2015)
The section “Causal hedonic hotspots for hedonic enhancements” describes brain sites involved in pleasure and ‘liking,’ not modules constructing a visual display. Searches for point-by-point visual construction and visual hotspots found no passage addressing that claim; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The prefrontal cortex is a site where cognitive evaluations, such as stressor controllability or sensory valence, can directly influence affect and reward.
“The PFC is also an important site at which cognitive evaluations, such as the controllability of a stressor [176] or the valence of sensory stimuli [177], can influence affect and reward directly.”
From Plasticity of synapses and reward circuit function in the genesis and treatment of depression (2023) · cites this paper as [177]
The nucleus accumbens is divided into core and shell subregions with distinct input and output patterns and likely distinct but similar functions.
“The NAc is divided into two histologically distinct subregions, the core and the shell, which have unique patterns of inputs and outputs [218,219] and are thought to serve distinct, but similar functions [177].”
From Plasticity of synapses and reward circuit function in the genesis and treatment of depression (2023) · cites this paper as [177]
The electrodes may actually not have caused much pleasure 'liking' after all, but they certainly activated 'wanting' for a variety of natural incentives.
“The electrodes may actually not have caused much pleasure ‘liking’ after all, but they certainly activated ‘wanting’ for a variety of natural incentives (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015).”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015
Pleasure 'liking' is generated by an anatomically small, neurochemically restricted, and functionally fragile brain circuit - which leaves out the large dopamine projection system of 'wanting.'
“Our research findings have indicated that pleasure ‘liking’ is generated by an anatomically small, neurochemically restricted, and functionally fragile brain circuit – which leaves out the large dopamine projection system of ‘wanting’ (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015).”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015
Unanimous activation of multiple hotspots together appears required in order to amplify sensory pleasures.
“Unanimous activation of multiple hotspots together appears required in order to amplify sensory pleasures.”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015
If unanimity is prevented by simultaneously suppressing one hotspot while stimulating another, the 'liking' enhancement ordinarily produced by the stimulation will be prevented.
“if unanimity is prevented (by simultaneously suppressing one hotspot while stimulating another) the ‘liking’ enhancement ordinarily produced by the stimulation will be prevented.”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015
A 'wanting' increase may still occur when unanimity is prevented, illustrating the more robust nature of 'wanting' circuitry.
“However, a ‘wanting’ increase may still may occur in such a case, again illustrating the more robust nature of ‘wanting’ circuitry (Smith and Berridge, 2007; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015).”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015

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On lateral septum‐like characteristics of outputs from the accumbal hedonic “hotspot” of Peciña and Berridge with commentary on the transitional nature of basal forebrain “boundaries”
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Cocaine-induced mu opioid receptor occupancy within the striatum is mediated by dopamine D2 receptors
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Research works printed but not linked: 5

Castro DC Berridge KC Optogenetic enhancement of food ‘liking’ versus ‘wanting’ in the ventral pallidum hotspot and lateral hypothalamus Society for Neuroscience Conference (San Diego) 2013
Castro DC Chesterman NS Wu MKH Berridge KC Two cortical hedonic hotspots: orbitofrontal and insular sites of sucrose 'liking' enhancement Society for Neuroscience Conference (Washington, D.C.) 2014
Kringelbach ML Berridge KC Pleasures of the Brain 2010 Oxford Oxford University Press
Smith GP Morrison AM Fluharty SJ Dopamine and food reward Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology 1995 New York Academic Press 83 144
Veldhuizen MG Rudenga KJ Small D Kringelbach ML Berridge KC The pleasure of taste flavor and food Pleasures of the brain 2010 Oxford, UK Oxford University Press 146 168

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“Subcortically, basal ganglia lesions, particularly those involving the caudate nucleus or nucleus accumbens, are associated with the development of apathy (Bhatia and Marsden, 1994; Gerace et al., 2013; Maeda et al., 2012; Phillips et al., 1987).”
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Common brain mechanisms of chronic pain and addiction
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Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation
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Reward and aversion
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Meta-analysis of reward processing in major depressive disorder reveals distinct abnormalities within the reward circuit
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Decoding molecular and cellular heterogeneity of mouse nucleus accumbens
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Physiological feelings
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Molecular mechanisms underlying alcohol-drinking behaviours
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Revisiting the global workspace orchestrating the hierarchical organization of the human brain
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Nucleus Accumbens Modulation in Reward and Aversion
Klawonn, A. M., & Malenka, R. C. (2018) · Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology · doi:10.1101/sqb.2018.83.037457 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Mechanisms of weight regain.
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Neurobiology of opioid dependence in creating addiction vulnerability
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Hungry brains: A meta-analytical review of brain activation imaging studies on food perception and appetite in obese individuals
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Collateralization of projections from the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus to the nucleus accumbens, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and central nucleus of the amygdala
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Amylin - its role in the homeostatic and hedonic control of eating and recent developments of amylin analogs to treat obesity
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Central insulin modulates food valuation via mesolimbic pathways
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Understanding health behavior change by motivation and reward mechanisms: a review of the literature
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Interoception as modeling, allostasis as control
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Distinct representations of basic taste qualities in human gustatory cortex
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The neurobiology of interoception and affect
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Phenomenal Consciousness and Emergence: Eliminating the Explanatory Gap
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“As another example of the multiple realizability of consciousness, in mammals the mapped, conscious images of the sensed world primarily involve a different part of the brain (cerebral cortex) than does the affective consciousness of emotions (subcortical brain regions) (Panksepp, 2004, 2016; Denton, 2005; Merker, 200…”
Background
Disrupted reward circuits is associated with cognitive deficits and depression severity in major depressive disorder
Gong, L., Yin, Y., He, C., Ye, Q., Bai, F., Yuan, Y., Zhang, H., Lv, L., Zhang, H., Xie, C., et al. (2017) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.016 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
A neurobehavioral approach to addiction: implications for the opioid epidemic and the psychology of addiction
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Nucleus accumbens cytoarchitecture predicts weight gain in children
Rapuano, K. M., Laurent, J. S., Hagler, D. J., Hatton, S. N., Thompson, W. K., Jernigan, T. L., Dale, A. M., Casey, B. J., & Watts, R. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2007918117 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Social interaction recruits mentalizing and reward systems in middle childhood
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Endogenous Reward Mechanisms and Their Importance in Stress Reduction, Exercise and the Brain
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Exploring the concept of homeostasis and considering its implications for economics
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Brain Activity Unique to Orgasm in Women: An fMRI Analysis
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Dynamics of pleasure-displeasure at the limit of exercise tolerance: conceptualizing the sense of exertional physical fatigue as an affective response
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Investigating the role of anticipatory reward and habit strength in obsessive-compulsive disorder
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Affective experience in the predictive mind: a review and new integrative account
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Dopamine signalling adaptations by prolonged high-fat feeding
Décarie-Spain, L., Hryhorczuk, C., & Fulton, S. (2016) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.03.010 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Plasticity of synapses and reward circuit function in the genesis and treatment of depression
Thompson, S. M. (2023) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-022-01422-1 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Is there a role for ghrelin in central dopaminergic systems? Focus on nigrostriatal and mesocorticolimbic pathways
Stievenard, A., Méquinion, M., Andrews, Z. B., Destée, A., Chartier-Harlin, M.-C., Viltart, O., & Vanbesien-Mailliot, C. C. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.11.021 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Reduced pain perception in children and adolescents with ADHD is normalized by methylphenidate
Wolff, N., Rubia, K., Knopf, H., Hölling, H., Martini, J., Ehrlich, S., & Roessner, V. (2016) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-016-0112-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Differential Contributions of Ventral Striatum Subregions to the Motivational and Hedonic Components of the Affective Processing of Reward
Pool, E. R., Munoz Tord, D., Delplanque, S., Stussi, Y., Cereghetti, D., Vuilleumier, P., & Sander, D. (2022) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1124-21.2022 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
The importance of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis as a therapeutic target in anorexia nervosa
Bou Khalil, R., Souaiby, L., & Farès, N. (2017) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.12.035 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Neurobiology and principles of addiction and tolerance
Turton, S., & Lingford-Hughes, A. (2016) · Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mpmed.2016.09.007 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Neural underpinnings of prosexual effects induced by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in healthy male humans
Bosch, O. G., Havranek, M. M., Baumberger, A., Preller, K. H., von Rotz, R., Herdener, M., Kraehenmann, R., Staempfli, P., Scheidegger, M., Klucken, T., et al. (2017) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.02.006 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Sexual excitation induces courtship ultrasonic vocalizations and cataplexy-like behavior in orexin neuron-ablated male mice
Kuwaki, T., & Kanno, K. (2021) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-021-01696-z · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Establishing the measurement precision of the patient health questionnaire in an adolescent sample
Hodgson, C. G., Bonifay, W., Yang, W., & Herman, K. C. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.09.013 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Increased child-evoked activation in the precuneus during facial affect recognition in mothers
Plank, I. S., Hindi Attar, C., Kunas, S. L., Bermpohl, F., & Dziobek, I. (2022) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25825 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Spatiotemporal profile of altered neural reactivity to food images in obesity: Reward system is altered automatically and predicts efficacy of weight loss intervention
Poghosyan, V., Ioannou, S., Al-Amri, K. M., Al-Mashhadi, S. A., Al-Mohammed, F., Al-Otaibi, T., & Al-Saeed, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.948063 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The value of consciousness: experiences worth having
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“In other words: when we pursue a pleasant experience, we are trying to (re)create sensations and feelings we expect to enjoy based on our past experiences, rather than aiming to stimulate our μ-opioid receptors, etc., (even though the former does depend on the latter, e.g. [69]).”
Scaling up from sentience: Modularity, conscious broadcast, and a constitutive solution to the combination problem.
Lacalli, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648930 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The function(s) of consciousness revisited: insights from a modular/constitutive model using vision as a test case
Lacalli, T. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829430
“…visual experience, but the idea can be extended to account for the construction of the visual display itself by adopting something closer to the hotspot idea used by Berridge and Kringelbach (2015) to account for the subcortical production of sensations of pleasure, of “liking” rather than wanting.”

Predicting Diagnosed Depression and Anti-depressant Treatment in Institutionalized Older Adults by Symptom Profiles: A Closer Look at Anhedonia and Dysphoria
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Concurrent and prospective associations of inflammatory signaling, specific depressive symptoms, and substance use in adolescence
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Faculty Opinions recommendation of Deep brain stimulation to reward circuitry alleviates anhedonia in refractory major depression.
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Self-citation
Behavioral Science and Neuroscience Identify Targets for Treatment of Anhedonia
Craske, M. G., Dour, H. J., Treanor, M., & Meuret, A. E. (2022) · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780197548523.003.0002

Authors: Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
Aarhus University (DK)
Corresponding author: Berridge, Kent C.
ORCID: Berridge, Kent C.
Kringelbach, Morten L.
Venue: Neuron
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2015-05
Volume: 86
Issue: 3
Pages: 646-664
ISSN: 0896-6273 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
PMC: PMC4425246
OpenAlex: W1603857261
Cited by: 1,730
References: 204
Citations by year: 2026: 146 · 2025: 193 · 2024: 166 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 164 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 133 · 2019: 213 · 2018: 130 · 2017: 108 · 2016: 88 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 1
FWCI: 14.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 371 d)
Locations: Neuron (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH063644, MH63644, R01MH063649)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA015188, R01DA015188)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Keywords: pleasure, mesocorticolimbic circuitry, anhedonia, dysphoria, reward, wanting, liking, nucleus accumbens, mesolimbic dopamine system, mood disorders, limbic system, valence
MeSH terms: Animals, Brain, Humans, Pleasure

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Pleasure Systems in the Brain

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