Interacting epidemics? Sleep curtailment, insulin resistance, and obesity

In the paper

“In addition, subjects had a 35% and 31% greater chance of gaining more than 5 kg in 6 years, and gaining more than 15 kg in 16 years, respectively.18,19”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Major weight gain; page unavailable) report that over 16 years, women sleeping five hours or less were 32% more likely to gain 15 kg than women sleeping 7–8 hours—close to the claimed 31%. The Methods (Measures of weight; page unavailable) specify a 16-year follow-up and a 15-kg weight-gain outcome. The paper does not support the separate claim of a 35% greater chance of gaining more than 5 kg in six years. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites [18] Patel SR Malhotra A White DP Gottlieb DJ Hu FB Association between reduced sleep and weight gain in women Am. J. Epidemiol 2006 164 947 954 16914506 PMC3496783 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Supported

  The results passage under “Measurement of Covariates” reports that short-duration sleepers were 35% more likely than normal-duration sleepers to gain at least 5 kg over six years. In the citing sentence, “respectively” pairs this source with that first finding; the 16-year finding is attributed to the other citation. Our copy does not provide a page number for the passage. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites [19] Chaput JP Després JP Bouchard C Tremblay A The association between sleep duration and weight gain in adults: a 6-year prospective study from the Quebec Family Study Sleep 2008 31 517 523 18457239 PMC2279744 source

In the paper

“Increased plasma levels of IL-6 were reported after partial and total sleep deprivation in most cases,93,106,107,108,112 although two studies only reported a loss of circadian rhythms82,96”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [93] Shearer WT Reuben JM Mullington JM Soluble TNA-alpha receptor 1 and IL-6 plasma levels in humans subjected to the sleep deprivation model of spaceflight J. Allergy Clin. Immunol 2001 107 165 170 11150007 source
• Not checked yetcites [106] Vgontzas AN Zoumakis E Bixler EO Adverse effects of modest sleep restriction on sleepiness, performance, and inflammatory cytokines J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2004 89 2119 2126 15126529 source
• Not checked yetcites [107] Irwin MR Wang M Campomayor CO Sleep deprivation and activation of morning levels of cellular and genomic markers of inflammation Arch. Intern. Med 2006 166 1756 1762 16983055 source
• Supported

  The Introduction reports increased IL-6 after acute sleep loss and after sleep reduced by 25%–50% across consecutive days. The Discussion and Results also report higher plasma IL-6 after ten days of restricted sleep. The separate circadian-rhythm clause is attached to different citations, not this source. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites [108] Haack M Sanchez E Mullington JM Elevated inflammatory markers in response to prolonged sleep restriction are associated with increased pain experience in healthy volunteers Sleep 2007 30 1145 1152 17910386 PMC1978405 source
• Partly supported

  The Results section (Cytokine production of PHA activated PBMC; page unavailable) reports increased IL-6 expression after partial sleep restriction. But the study measured IL-6 in stimulated blood cells, not plasma, and did not test total sleep deprivation. The circadian-rhythm qualification is attached to other citations in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites [112] van Leeuwen WM Lehto M Karisola P Sleep restriction increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by augmenting proinflammatory responses through IL-17 and CRP PLoS One 2009 4 e4589 19240794 PMC2643002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Not checked yetcites [82] Born J Lange T Hansen K Effects of sleep and circadian rhythm on human circulating immune cells J. Immul 1997 158 4454 4464 9127011 source
• Not checked yetcites [96] Frey DJ Fleshner M Wright KP The effects of 40 hours of total sleep deprivation on inflammatory markers in healthy young adults Brain Behav. Immun 2007 21 1050 1057 17524614 source

In the paper

“We recently reported that obese subjects often suffer from sleep-disordered breathing, which induces frequent microawakenings and loss of SWS.148”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [148] Knutson KL Zhao X Mattingly M Galli G Cizza G Predictors of sleep-disordered breathing in obese adults who are chronic short sleepers Sleep Med 2012 13 484 489 22326831 PMC3323698 source

In the paper

“A recent review article summarizing 12 studies from 15 countries from 1960 to 2000 did not find a consistent decrease in self-reported adult sleep duration: self-reported sleep duration had increased in seven countries, decreased in six, and results were inconsistent for the United States and Sweden.12”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [12] Bin YS Marshall NS Glozier N Secular trends in adult sleep duration: A systematic review Sleep Med. Rev 2012 16 223 230 22075214 source

In the paper

“Imprecision in assessing sleep duration, as well as socioeconomic and demographic factors may play a role in this heterogeneity.”

In the paper

“Accumulating evidence has pointed to an association between sleep curtailment and obesity,4,5 type 2 diabetes,6–9 and possibly mortality (see Ref. 10 for a review).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [4] Hasler G Buysse DJ Klaghofer R The association between short sleep duration and obesity in young adults: a 13-Year prospective study Sleep 2004 27 661 666 15283000 source
• Not checked yetcites [5] Taheri S Lin L Austin D Young T Mignot E Short sleep duration is associated with reduced leptin, elevated ghrelin, and increased Body Mass Index (BMI) Sleep 2004 27 A146 A147 PMC535701 15602591
• Not checked yetcites [6] Ayas NT White DP Al-Delaimy WK A prospective study of sleep duration and coronary heart disease in women Arch. Intern. Med 2003 163 205 209 12546611 source
• Not checked yetcites [7] Björkelund C Bondyr-Carlsson D Lapidus L Sleep disturbances in midlife unrelated to 32-year diabetes incidence: the prospective population study of women in Gothenburg Diabetes Care 2005 28 2739 2744 16249549 source
• Not checked yetcites [8] Yaggi HK Araujo AB McKinlay JB Sleep duration as a risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 2006 29 657 661 16505522 source
• Not checked yetcites [9] Gangwisch JE Heymsfield SB Boden-Albala B Sleep duration as a risk factor for diabetes incidence in a large US sample Sleep 2007 30 1667 1673 18246976 PMC2276127 source

In the paper

“This relationship is likely to be bidirectional and causal in nature, but many aspects remain to be elucidated.”

In the paper

“Worldwide, secular trends in adult sleep duration may be more variable.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [12] Bin YS Marshall NS Glozier N Secular trends in adult sleep duration: A systematic review Sleep Med. Rev 2012 16 223 230 22075214 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of 45 cross-sectional studies, including 604,509 adults and 30,002 children, confirmed the relationship between short sleep (generally fewer than five hours per night in adults and fewer than 10 hours per night in children) and obesity, and quantified the associated risk (OR 1.55; 1.43–1.68; OR 1.89; 1.46–2.43, for adults and children, respectively).13”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [13] Cappuccio FP Taggart FM Kandala NB Meta-analysis of short sleep duration and obesity in children and adults Sleep 2008 31 619 626 18517032 PMC2398753 source

In the paper

“Circadian rhythms are endogenously generated in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus by feedback loops of transcripts of a group of “core clock” genes, including the CLOCK gene.40,41”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [40] Kohsaka A Laposky AD Ramsey KM High-fat diet disrupts behavioral and molecular circadian rhythms in mice Cell Metab 2007 6 414 421 17983587 source
• Not checked yetcites [41] Asher G Schibler U Crosstalk between components of circadian and metabolic cycles in mammals Cell Metab 13 125 137 21284980 source

In the paper

“Short sleepers (fewer than five to six hours) gained 2 kg more in a 6-year study,19 and 0.4 kg more in another 16-year study.18”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [19] Chaput JP Després JP Bouchard C Tremblay A The association between sleep duration and weight gain in adults: a 6-year prospective study from the Quebec Family Study Sleep 2008 31 517 523 18457239 PMC2279744 source
• Not checked yetcites [18] Patel SR Malhotra A White DP Gottlieb DJ Hu FB Association between reduced sleep and weight gain in women Am. J. Epidemiol 2006 164 947 954 16914506 PMC3496783 source

In the paper

“In addition, this variability may be real and differ on the basis of ethnic group and socio-economic status: a study found increased risk of developing diabetes only in Whites and Hispanics who slept fewer than seven hours.36”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [36] Beihl DA Liese AD Haffner SM Sleep duration as a risk factor for incident type 2 diabetes in a multiethnic cohort Ann. Epidemiol 2009 19 351 357 19362278 source

In the paper

“Both long sleep (OR 1.48; 1.13–1.96) and decreased sleep efficiency also resulted in greater chances of developing diabetes.31”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [31] Cappuccio FP D’Elia L Strazzullo P Miller MA Quantity and quality of sleep and incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis Diabetes Care 2010 33 414 420 19910503 PMC2809295 source

In the paper

“For example, short sleep may affect metabolism differently in natural “short sleepers” versus chronically sleep-deprived individuals.”

In the paper

“Many metabolic parameters display diurnal rhythms, which are the resultant of both homeostatic and circadian mechanisms.”

In the paper

“Many mechanisms may be responsible for the frequently observed insulin resistance in obese individuals, including increased release of free fatty acids, leptin, and TNF-α from adipose tissue.26”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [26] Boden G Shulman GI Free fatty acids in obesity and type 2 diabetes: defining their role in the development of insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction Eur. J. Clin. Invest 2002 32 14 23 12028371 source

In the paper

“The amount of weight gain over time, however, varied greatly, ranging from less than 1 kg to several kg, and age may be one of the parameters modulating this association.”

In the paper

“Thus, there is a large variability among studies in weight gain associated with short sleep for unknown reasons: the magnitude of this effect may be gender dependent or depend on other yet-to-be identified genetic and environmental factors.”

In the paper

“Thyroid hormones are important determinants of EE; cortisol and GH are powerful modulators of circadian rhythms of glucose metabolism.”

In the paper

“Plasma insulin levels also display a modest diurnal variation with a 10% excursion, a nadir between midnight and 6 am and a peak between noon and 6 pm.60”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [60] Boden G Ruiz J Ubrain J Chen X Evidence for a circadian rhythm of insulin secretion Am. J. Physiol 1996 271 E246 E252 8770017 source

In the paper

“Adiponectin is a hormone secreted by the adipocytes in an inverse fashion compared to fat mass.61”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [61] Stanley K Wynne K McGowan B Bloom S Hormonal regulation of food intake Physiol. Rev 2005 85 1131 1158 16183909 source

In the paper

“Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels rise at night, mostly due to increased hypothalamic secretion of thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) (Fig. 2).48”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [48] Van Coevorden A Mockel J Laurent E Neuroendocrine rhythms and sleep in aging men Am. J. Physiol 1991 260 E651 E661 2018128 source

In the paper

“Somatostatin and GHRH are secreted in alternation, thus generating the typical pulsatile pattern of GH secretion.”

In the paper

“GH secretion is under dual hypothalamic control: somatostatin is inhibitory and growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) is stimulatory.”

In the paper

“Time-keeping signals are passed on from the suprachiasmatic nucleus to oscillators in peripheral tissues also containing core clock genes.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [40] Kohsaka A Laposky AD Ramsey KM High-fat diet disrupts behavioral and molecular circadian rhythms in mice Cell Metab 2007 6 414 421 17983587 source
• Not checked yetcites [41] Asher G Schibler U Crosstalk between components of circadian and metabolic cycles in mammals Cell Metab 13 125 137 21284980 source

In the paper

“Adiponectin has anti-inflammatory properties: in vitro exposure to adiponectin decreases macrophage activation and TNF-α production.”

In the paper

“GH levels were lower in SWS-deprived individuals50 and higher in individuals with pharmacologically induced SWS.51”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [50] Karacan I Rosenbloom AL Williams RL Finley WW Hursch CJ Slow wave sleep deprivation in relation to plasma growth hormone concentration Behav. Neuropsychiatry 1971 2 11 14 4327760
• Not checked yetcites [51] Van Cauter E Plat L Scharf MB Simultaneous stimulation of slow-wave sleep and growth hormone secretion by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in normal young men J. Clin. Invest 1997 100 745 753 9239423 PMC508244 source

In the paper

“In humans, plasma adiponectin levels correlated negatively with insulin resistance, and higher levels correlated with future weight gain in 1,063 women.63,64”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [63] Hivert MF Sullivan LM Fox CS Associations of adiponectin, resistin, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha with insulin resistance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2008 93 3165 3172 18492747 PMC2515087 source
• Not checked yetcites [64] Hivert MF Sun Q Shrader P Higher adiponectin levels predict greater weight gain in healthy women in the Nurses’ Health Study Obesity 2011 19 409 415 20814416 PMC3119857 source

In the paper

“GHRH injection increased glucose levels at awakening by almost 50%56 and GH administration rapidly decreased muscular glucose uptake.55,57”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [56] Byrne M Sturis J Blackman JD Polonsky KS van Cauter E 1992 Decreased glucose tolerance during sleep may be partially mediated by GH. Program of the 74th Annual Meeting of The Endocrine Society, San Antonio, TX (Abstract 40)
• Not checked yetcites [55] Møller N Jorgensen JOL Schmitz O Effects of a growth hormone pulse on total and forearm substrate fluxes in humans Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab 1990 258 E86 E91 2405702 source
• Not checked yetcites [57] Møller N Butler PC Antsiferov MA Alberti KGMM Effects of growth hormone on insulin sensitivity and forearm metabolism in normal man Diabetologia 1989 32 105 110 2656349 source

In the paper

“Individuals with type 2 diabetes typically have low adiponectin levels, even when adjusted for body weight.65”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [65] Lilja M Rolandsson O Norberg M Soderberg S The impact of leptin and adiponectin on incident type 2 diabetes is modified by sex and insulin resistance Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord 2012 10 143 151 22283633 source

In the paper

“EE and glucose metabolism are modulated by a number of hormones.”

In the paper

“Endogenous rhythms, in turn, are synchronized to the outside world by various environmental clues, mostly by light via the retina.”

In the paper

“Adiponectin knockout mice develop insulin resistance and increased TNF-α levels when fed a high fat diet.”

In the paper

“Thyroid hormones are important determinants of EE; cortisol and GH are powerful modulators of circadian rhythms of glucose metabolism.”

In the paper

“Cortisol concentrations reach their zenith in the morning, experience a gradual fall during the day, which is briefly interrupted by meals, and have their nadir around 3 am (Fig. 2).48”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [48] Van Coevorden A Mockel J Laurent E Neuroendocrine rhythms and sleep in aging men Am. J. Physiol 1991 260 E651 E661 2018128 source

In the paper

“Its role in energy homeostasis is unclear: increases, decreases, or no changes in energy balance are derived from peripheral adiponectin administration in rodents.62”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [62] Dridi S Taouis M Adiponectin and energy homeostasis: consensus and controversy J. Nutr. Biochem 2009 20 831 839 19716279 source

In the paper

“The sympathovagal system and adiponectin influence both EE and glucose metabolism.”

In the paper

“In contrast, patients with type 1 diabetes have higher than expected adiponectin levels: an observation that is poorly understood.66”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [66] Maahs DM Ogden LG Snell-Bergeon JK Determinants of serum adiponectin in persons with and without type 1 diabetes Am. J. Epidemiol 2007 166 731 740 17591595 source

In the paper

“IL-1β decreases during the night and reaches its nadir at 8 am in the morning.82”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [82] Born J Lange T Hansen K Effects of sleep and circadian rhythm on human circulating immune cells J. Immul 1997 158 4454 4464 9127011 source

In the paper

“Leptin is secreted by the white adipose tissue in a highly pulsatile fashion.74”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [74] Licinio J Mantzoros C Negrao AB Human leptin levels are pulsatile and inversely related to pituitary-adrenal function Nat. Med 1997 3 575 579 9142131 source

In the paper

“Leptin reflects fat stores: its levels increase after meals and during the night and are associated with decreased appetite (Fig. 2).74”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [74] Licinio J Mantzoros C Negrao AB Human leptin levels are pulsatile and inversely related to pituitary-adrenal function Nat. Med 1997 3 575 579 9142131 source

In the paper

“It is important to note that experimentally induced sleep alterations may not be representative of changes occurring in clinical condition of chronic sleep deprivation.”

In the paper

“Melatonin is a sleep-promoting hormone that is produced by the pineal gland.”

In the paper

“Total and acetylated ghrelin levels rise with fasting and during sleep (Fig. 2).76”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [76] Spiegel K Tasali E Leproult R Scherberg N van Cauter E Twenty-four-hour profiles of acylated and total ghrelin: relationship with glucose levels and impact of time of day and sleep J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2011 96 486 493 21106712 PMC3206394 source

In the paper

“Orexin neurons are active during waking and quiescent during sleep; consistently, orexin levels in the CSF are maximal at the end of the waking period.80,81”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [80] Van den Top M Lee K Whyment AD Blanks AM Spanswick D Orexigensensitive NPY/AgRP pacemaker neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus Nat. Neurosci 2004 7 493 494 15097991 source
• Not checked yetcites [81] Zeitzer JM Buckmaster CL Lyons DM Mignot E Increasing length of wakefulness and modulation of hypocretin-1 in the wake-consolidated squirrel monkey Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol 2007 293 R1736 R1742 17686881 source

In the paper

“Ghrelin has the opposite effect on the arcuate nucleus, stimulating appetite, and prolonging postprandial glucose responses, while stimulating GH release.79”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [79] Hataya Y Akamizu T Takaya K A low dose of ghrelin stimulates growth hormone (GH) release synergistically with GH-releasing hormone in humans J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2001 86 4552 11549707 source

In the paper

“Acetylated ghrelin, the active form, is necessary for most of its endocrine actions, including GH release, appetite stimulation, and gastric emptying.”

In the paper

“Orexin A and B, two neuropeptides released by lateral hypothalamic neurons, stimulate appetite.”

In the paper

“Most of the experiments on the effects of acute sleep deprivation were conducted in healthy, lean volunteers.”

In the paper

“The orexin system is activated by ghrelin and inhibited by leptin and glucose.”

In the paper

“The relationship between sleep and metabolism has been extensively studied in human subjects under varying conditions, such as total sleep deprivation,87–100 partial sleep deprivation,101–122 and sleep fragmentation123–125 (Table 1).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [87] Kuhn E Brodan V Brodanova M Rysanek K Metabolic reflection of sleep deprivation Act. Nerv. Super 1969 11 165 174 5798779
• Not checked yetcites [88] Parker DC Rossman LG Pekary AE Hershman JM Effect of 64-hour sleep deprivation on the circadian waveform of thyrotropin (TSH): further evidence of sleep-related inhibition of TSH release J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 1987 64 157 161 3782430 source
• Not checked yetcites [89] VanHelder T Symons JD Radomski MW Effects of sleep deprivation and exercise on glucose tolerance Aviat. Space Environ. Med 1993 64 487 492 8338493
• Not checked yetcites [90] Gonzáles-Ortiz M Martínez-Abundis E Balcázar-Muñoz BR Pascoe-González S Effect of sleep deprivation on insulin sensitivity and cortisol concentration in healthy subjects Diabetes Nutr. Metab 2000 13 80 83 10898125
• Not checked yetcites [91] Thomas M Sing H Belenky G Neural basis of alertness and cognitive performance impairments during sleepiness: I. Effects of 24 h of sleep deprivation on waking human regional brain activity J. Sleep Res 2000 9 335 352 11123521 source
• Not checked yetcites [92] Garfinkel D Zorin M Wainstein J Efficacy and safety of prolonged-release melatonin in insomnia patients with diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes 2011 4 307 313 21887103 PMC3160855
• Not checked yetcites [93] Shearer WT Reuben JM Mullington JM Soluble TNA-alpha receptor 1 and IL-6 plasma levels in humans subjected to the sleep deprivation model of spaceflight J. Allergy Clin. Immunol 2001 107 165 170 11150007 source
• Not checked yetcites [94] Mullington JM Chan JL van Dongen HP Sleep loss reduces diurnal rhythm amplitude of leptin in healthy men J. Neuroendocrinol 2003 15 851 854 12899679 source
• Not checked yetcites [95] Dzaja A Dalal MA Himmerich H Sleep enhances nocturnal plasma ghrelin levels in healthy subjects Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab 2004 286 E963 E967 14871884 source
• Not checked yetcites [96] Frey DJ Fleshner M Wright KP The effects of 40 hours of total sleep deprivation on inflammatory markers in healthy young adults Brain Behav. Immun 2007 21 1050 1057 17524614 source

In the paper

“IL-6 and TNF-α stimulate secretion of cortisol and, in turn, cortisol inhibits their secretion.84”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [84] Tsigos C Papanicolaou DA Defensor R Dose effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 on pituitary hormone secretion and energy expenditure Neuroendocrinology 1997 66 54 62 9258919 source

In the paper

“Reports on diurnal variability of CRP are few and inconsistent: some report no diurnal variance,85 whereas others find increased morning levels.86”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [85] Meier-Ewert HK Ridker PM Rifai N Absence of diurnal variation of C-reactive protein concentration in healthy human subjects Clin. Chem 2001 47 426 430 11238292 source
• Not checked yetcites [86] Koc M Karaarslan O Abali G Batur MK Variations in high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels over 24 hours in patients with stable coronary artery disease Tex. Heart. Inst. J 2010 37 42 48 20200626 PMC2829811

In the paper

“Partial sleep deprivation affects SWS less than other sleep stages.”

In the paper

“Insulin, while peripherally lowering blood glucose and stimulating appetite, inhibits appetite centrally in a leptin-like manner.78”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [78] Morton GJ Schwartz MW Leptin and the central nervous system control of glucose metabolism Physiol. Rev 2011 91 389 411 21527729 PMC3379883 source

In the paper

“Food intake and physical activity were often, but not always, strictly controlled (Table 1).”

In the paper

“IL-6 displays a circadian rhythm, with a first peak around 2 am and a second peak around 5 am (Fig. 2).82,83”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [82] Born J Lange T Hansen K Effects of sleep and circadian rhythm on human circulating immune cells J. Immul 1997 158 4454 4464 9127011 source
• Not checked yetcites [83] Vgontzas AN Zoumakis M Papanicolaou DA Chronic insomnia is associated with a shift of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor secretion from nighttime to daytime Metabolism 2002 51 887 892 12077736 source

In the paper

“Ghrelin, produced in the stomach, stimulates appetite and circulates mainly in a nonacetylated form.75”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [75] Badman MK Flier JS The gut and energy balance: visceral allies in the obesity wars Science 2005 307 1909 1914 15790843 source

In the paper

“In a small study of eight lean males, plasma catecholamines were consistently lower during the night with no differences among sleep stages (Fig. 2).73”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [73] Linsell CR Lightman SL Mullen PE Brown MJ Causon RC Circadian rythms of epinephrine and norepinephrine in man J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 1985 60 1210 1205 3998066 source

In the paper

“Melatonin is exclusively secreted during the dark, as light inhibits its production (Fig. 2).”

In the paper

“Leptin and ghrelin exert their effects in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, through anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin/cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (POMC/CART) and orexigenic neuropeptide Y/agouti-related protein (NPY/AgRP) neurons.”

In the paper

“Interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), TNF-α, and C-reactive protein (CRP) are pro-inflammatory factors.”

In the paper

“Finally, adiponectin displays some diurnal variability, with lower levels at night (Fig. 2).68,69”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [68] Scheer FA Chan JL Fargnoli J Day/night variations of high-molecular-weight adiponectin and lipocalin-2 in healthy men studied under fed and fasted conditions Diabetologia 2010 53 2401 2405 20703446 PMC3111077 source
• Not checked yetcites [69] Cizza G Nguyen VT Eskandari F Low 24-hour adiponectin and high nocturnal leptin concentrations in a case-control study of community-dwelling premenopausal women with major depressive disorder: the Premenopausal, Ostopenia/Osteoporosis, Women, Alendronate, Depression (POWER) study J. Clin. Psychiatry 2010 71 1079 1087 20492842 PMC3277206 source

In the paper

“Plasma norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (EPI) are produced by the sympathetic system: EPI is secreted exclusively from the adrenal medulla, whereas NE can also be released from postganglionic sympathetic nerves.72”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [72] Hjemdahl P Plasma catecholamines—analytical challenges and physiological limitations Baillieres Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 1993 7 307 353 8489483 source

In the paper

“Projections from orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus activate NPY neurons in the arcuate nucleus.80”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [80] Van den Top M Lee K Whyment AD Blanks AM Spanswick D Orexigensensitive NPY/AgRP pacemaker neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus Nat. Neurosci 2004 7 493 494 15097991 source

In the paper

“Leptin activates POMC/CART neurons, which induces hunger and inhibits NPY/AgRP neurons,77,78 which induces satiety.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [77] Elias CF Aschkenasi C Lee C Leptin differentially regulates NPY and POMC neurons projecting to the lateral hypothalamic area Neuron 1999 23 775 786 10482243 source
• Not checked yetcites [78] Morton GJ Schwartz MW Leptin and the central nervous system control of glucose metabolism Physiol. Rev 2011 91 389 411 21527729 PMC3379883 source

In the paper

“Two weeks of partial sleep deprivation (5.5 hours) decreased resting metabolic rate and increased RQ in a randomized, cross-over study109”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [109] Nedeltcheva AV Kessler L Imperial J Penev PD Exposure to recurrent sleep restriction in the setting of high caloric intake and physical inactivity results in increased insulin resistance and reduced glucose tolerance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2009 94 3242 3250 19567526 PMC2819825 source

In the paper

“Partial sleep deprivation did not affect 24-h levels of GH in lean or obese individuals,101,109,118 but six 4-h nights changed GH nocturnal secretory patterns: sleep deprivation was associated with a biphasic pattern compared to the usual single large GH peak at sleep onset.102”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [101] Spiegel K Leproult R Van Cauter E Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function Lancet 1999 354 1435 1439 10543671 source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Nedeltcheva AV Kessler L Imperial J Penev PD Exposure to recurrent sleep restriction in the setting of high caloric intake and physical inactivity results in increased insulin resistance and reduced glucose tolerance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2009 94 3242 3250 19567526 PMC2819825 source
• Not checked yetcites [118] Nedeltcheva AV Kilkus JM Imperial J Schoeller DA Penev PD Insufficient sleep undermies dietary efforts to reduce adiposity Ann. Intern. Med 2010 153 435 441 20921542 PMC2951287 source
• Not checked yetcites [102] Spiegel K Leproult R Colecchia EF Adaptation of the 24 h growth hormone profile to a state of sleep debt Am. J. Psychiol 2000 279 R874 R883 10956244 source

In the paper

“Acute sleep deprivation is associated with increased sympathetic activity, decreased parasympathetic tone and therefore, with increased sympathovagal balance101,109,123,124”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [101] Spiegel K Leproult R Van Cauter E Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function Lancet 1999 354 1435 1439 10543671 source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Nedeltcheva AV Kessler L Imperial J Penev PD Exposure to recurrent sleep restriction in the setting of high caloric intake and physical inactivity results in increased insulin resistance and reduced glucose tolerance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2009 94 3242 3250 19567526 PMC2819825 source
• Not checked yetcites [123] Tasali E Leproult R Ehrmann DA Van Cauter E Slow-wave sleep and the risk of type 2 diabetes in humans Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008 105 1044 1049 18172212 PMC2242689 source
• Not checked yetcites [124] Stamatakis KA Punjabi NM Effects of sleep fragmentation on glucose metabolism in normal subjects Chest 2010 137 95 101 19542260 PMC2803120 source

In the paper

“In addition, important differences exist between acute and chronic sleep deprivation.”

In the paper

“Two groups found that one night of total sleep deprivation increased EE during the night, whereas the following day, resting and postprandial EE were reduced by 5% and 20%, respectively, overall leading to a positive energy balance43,100”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [43] Jung CM Melanson EL Frydelhall EJ Energy expenditure during sleep, sleep deprivation and sleep following sleep deprivation in adult humans J. Physiol 2011 589 235 244 21059762 PMC3039272 source
• Not checked yetcites [100] Benedict C Hallschmid M Lassen A Acute sleep deprivation reduces energy expenditure in healthy men Am. J. Clin. Nutr 2011 93 1229 1236 21471283 source

In the paper

“Thus, almost all studies find decreased glucose tolerance and a dampened compensatory insulin response after sleep curtailment.”

In the paper

“Acute total sleep deprivation increased TSH and free T4 levels,88 whereas partial sleep deprivation of 5.5-h nights for two weeks or six 4-h nights decreased TSH and T4 levels, suggesting a dose-related effect104,116”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [88] Parker DC Rossman LG Pekary AE Hershman JM Effect of 64-hour sleep deprivation on the circadian waveform of thyrotropin (TSH): further evidence of sleep-related inhibition of TSH release J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 1987 64 157 161 3782430 source
• Not checked yetcites [104] Spiegel K Tasali E Penev P Van Cauter E Brief communication: sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite Ann. Intern Med 2004a 141 846 850 15583226 source
• Not checked yetcites [116] Kessler L Nedeltcheva A Imperial J Penev PD Changes in serum TSH and free T4 during human sleep restriction Sleep 2010 33 1115 1118 20815195 PMC2910542 source

In the paper

“Mean 24-h levels of plasma cortisol often remain unchanged by sleep deprivation,43,95,96,99,106,109,123 but the circadian cortisol-pattern changes, as described above.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [43] Jung CM Melanson EL Frydelhall EJ Energy expenditure during sleep, sleep deprivation and sleep following sleep deprivation in adult humans J. Physiol 2011 589 235 244 21059762 PMC3039272 source
• Not checked yetcites [95] Dzaja A Dalal MA Himmerich H Sleep enhances nocturnal plasma ghrelin levels in healthy subjects Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab 2004 286 E963 E967 14871884 source
• Not checked yetcites [96] Frey DJ Fleshner M Wright KP The effects of 40 hours of total sleep deprivation on inflammatory markers in healthy young adults Brain Behav. Immun 2007 21 1050 1057 17524614 source
• Not checked yetcites [99] Pejovic S Vgontzas AN Basta M Leptin and hunger levels in young healthy adults after one night of sleep loss J. Sleep. Res 2010 19 552 558 20545838 PMC3734788 source
• Not checked yetcites [106] Vgontzas AN Zoumakis E Bixler EO Adverse effects of modest sleep restriction on sleepiness, performance, and inflammatory cytokines J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2004 89 2119 2126 15126529 source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Nedeltcheva AV Kessler L Imperial J Penev PD Exposure to recurrent sleep restriction in the setting of high caloric intake and physical inactivity results in increased insulin resistance and reduced glucose tolerance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2009 94 3242 3250 19567526 PMC2819825 source
• Not checked yetcites [123] Tasali E Leproult R Ehrmann DA Van Cauter E Slow-wave sleep and the risk of type 2 diabetes in humans Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008 105 1044 1049 18172212 PMC2242689 source

In the paper

“In addition, a delay and/or a reduction in the acrophase of cortisol have been reported after partial and total sleep deprivation.95,102,109”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [95] Dzaja A Dalal MA Himmerich H Sleep enhances nocturnal plasma ghrelin levels in healthy subjects Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab 2004 286 E963 E967 14871884 source
• Not checked yetcites [102] Spiegel K Leproult R Colecchia EF Adaptation of the 24 h growth hormone profile to a state of sleep debt Am. J. Psychiol 2000 279 R874 R883 10956244 source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Nedeltcheva AV Kessler L Imperial J Penev PD Exposure to recurrent sleep restriction in the setting of high caloric intake and physical inactivity results in increased insulin resistance and reduced glucose tolerance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2009 94 3242 3250 19567526 PMC2819825 source

In the paper

“In summary, EE may be differentially affected by chronic versus acute sleep curtailment and may also depend on differences in reasons of sleep curtailment (experimentally induced short sleep vs. chronic insomnia).”

In the paper

“Partial and total sleep deprivation resulted in elevated salivary and plasma cortisol the following afternoon and evening100,101,109,114,117 (Table 1), while morning cortisol levels may be unchanged or even decreased.90,97,117”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [100] Benedict C Hallschmid M Lassen A Acute sleep deprivation reduces energy expenditure in healthy men Am. J. Clin. Nutr 2011 93 1229 1236 21471283 source
• Not checked yetcites [101] Spiegel K Leproult R Van Cauter E Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function Lancet 1999 354 1435 1439 10543671 source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Nedeltcheva AV Kessler L Imperial J Penev PD Exposure to recurrent sleep restriction in the setting of high caloric intake and physical inactivity results in increased insulin resistance and reduced glucose tolerance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2009 94 3242 3250 19567526 PMC2819825 source
• Not checked yetcites [114] Buxton OM Marcelli E Short and long sleep are positively associated with obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease among adults in the United States Soc. Sci. Med 2010 71 1027 1036 20621406 source
• Not checked yetcites [117] Omisade A Buxton OM Rusak B Impact of acute sleep restriction on cortisol and leptin levels in young women Physiol. Behav 2010 99 651 656 20138072 source
• Not checked yetcites [90] Gonzáles-Ortiz M Martínez-Abundis E Balcázar-Muñoz BR Pascoe-González S Effect of sleep deprivation on insulin sensitivity and cortisol concentration in healthy subjects Diabetes Nutr. Metab 2000 13 80 83 10898125
• Not checked yetcites [97] Schmid SM Hallschmid M Jauch-Chara K Sleep loss alters basal metabolic hormone secretion and modulates the dynamic counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2007 92 3044 3051 17519315 source

In the paper

“However, subgroup analysis revealed that effects of sleep restriction on adiponectin levels may be gender and race dependent: adiponectin decreased in Caucasian women and increased in African American women, while adiponectin levels in males did not change after short sleep121”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [121] Simpson NS Banks S Arroyo S Dinges DF Effects of sleep restriction on adiponectin levels in healthy men and women Physiol. Behav 2010 101 693 698 20723551 PMC2975754 source

In the paper

“This is mediated by multiple factors, such as decreased thyroid hormones and, possibly, adiponectin levels; increased sympathovagal balance; and altered patterns of cortisol secretion, while the role of GH is still unclear (Fig. 3).”

In the paper

“TNF-α levels are most often,82,93,112 but not always,107 unchanged after partial sleep restriction.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [82] Born J Lange T Hansen K Effects of sleep and circadian rhythm on human circulating immune cells J. Immul 1997 158 4454 4464 9127011 source
• Not checked yetcites [93] Shearer WT Reuben JM Mullington JM Soluble TNA-alpha receptor 1 and IL-6 plasma levels in humans subjected to the sleep deprivation model of spaceflight J. Allergy Clin. Immunol 2001 107 165 170 11150007 source
• Not checked yetcites [112] van Leeuwen WM Lehto M Karisola P Sleep restriction increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by augmenting proinflammatory responses through IL-17 and CRP PLoS One 2009 4 e4589 19240794 PMC2643002 source
• Not checked yetcites [107] Irwin MR Wang M Campomayor CO Sleep deprivation and activation of morning levels of cellular and genomic markers of inflammation Arch. Intern. Med 2006 166 1756 1762 16983055 source

In the paper

“However, morning total ghrelin levels were increased after one night of sleep deprivation95,98 and in individuals with shorter habitual sleep durations.5”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [95] Dzaja A Dalal MA Himmerich H Sleep enhances nocturnal plasma ghrelin levels in healthy subjects Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab 2004 286 E963 E967 14871884 source
• Not checked yetcites [98] Schmid SM Hallschmid M Jauchchara K Born J Schultes B A single night of sleep deprivation increases ghrelin levels and feelings of hunger in normal-weight healthy men J. Sleep Res 2008 17 331 334 18564298 source
• Not checked yetcites [5] Taheri S Lin L Austin D Young T Mignot E Short sleep duration is associated with reduced leptin, elevated ghrelin, and increased Body Mass Index (BMI) Sleep 2004 27 A146 A147 PMC535701 15602591

In the paper

“We conclude that short sleep promotes a proinflammatory state, which, in turn, exerts its negative consequences on insulin resistance.”

In the paper

“In summary, sleep deprivation and obesity may potentiate each other in a vicious reverberating circuit; short sleep may induce weight gain, via the mechanisms outlined in this paper, whereas obesity, in turn, via sleep apnea and other symptoms, may disrupt sleep.”

In the paper

“If food is provided ad libitum, partial or total sleep deprivation may not change hunger ratings, while likely increasing food intake.99,117,120”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [99] Pejovic S Vgontzas AN Basta M Leptin and hunger levels in young healthy adults after one night of sleep loss J. Sleep. Res 2010 19 552 558 20545838 PMC3734788 source
• Not checked yetcites [117] Omisade A Buxton OM Rusak B Impact of acute sleep restriction on cortisol and leptin levels in young women Physiol. Behav 2010 99 651 656 20138072 source
• Not checked yetcites [120] Simpson NS Banks S Dinges DF Sleep restriction is associated with increased morning plasma leptin concentrations, especially in women Biol. Res. Nurs 2010 12 47 53 20453022 PMC3564645 source

In the paper

“The effects of sleep deprivation on appetite may not be immediate: one 4-h night of sleep deprivation was associated with increases in food intake 36 h later, while this parameter was unaffected immediately following sleep deprivation.113”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [113] Brondel L Romer MA Nougues PM Touyarou P Davenne D Acute partial sleep deprivation increases food intake in healthy men Am. J. Clin. Nutr 2010 91 1550 1559 20357041 source

In the paper

“In summary, sleep loss impairs glucose metabolism and may decrease EE.”

In the paper

“After two 4-h nights, there was a 24% increase in daytime appetite ratings;105 in addition, sleep deprivation specifically increased appetite for sweet and salty foods.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Spiegel K Leproult R L’Hermite-Baleriaux M Leptin levels are dependent on sleep duration: relationships with sympathovagal balance, carbohydrate regulation, cortisol, and thyrotropin J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2004b 89 5762 5771 15531540 source

In the paper

“IL-1β was elevated after partial,106,112 and total sleep deprivation,96 but one study did not find any changes after total sleep deprivation82”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [106] Vgontzas AN Zoumakis E Bixler EO Adverse effects of modest sleep restriction on sleepiness, performance, and inflammatory cytokines J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 2004 89 2119 2126 15126529 source
• Not checked yetcites [112] van Leeuwen WM Lehto M Karisola P Sleep restriction increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by augmenting proinflammatory responses through IL-17 and CRP PLoS One 2009 4 e4589 19240794 PMC2643002 source
• Not checked yetcites [96] Frey DJ Fleshner M Wright KP The effects of 40 hours of total sleep deprivation on inflammatory markers in healthy young adults Brain Behav. Immun 2007 21 1050 1057 17524614 source
• Not checked yetcites [82] Born J Lange T Hansen K Effects of sleep and circadian rhythm on human circulating immune cells J. Immul 1997 158 4454 4464 9127011 source

In the paper

“White artificial light greater than 200 lux completely suppressed nocturnal plasma melatonin production, dim room light (106 lux) reduced melatonin by 88% and light intensities lower than 80 lux did not affect melatonin levels.159”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [159] Zeitzer JM Dijk DJ Kronauer R Brown E Czeisler C Sensitivity of the human circadian pacemaker to nocturnal light: melatonin phase resetting suppression J. Physiol 2000 526 695 702 10922269 PMC2270041 source

In the paper

“Of note, studies that found decreased leptin after short sleep controlled food intake, whereas when sleep-deprived subjects were allowed to eat ad libitum, leptin levels were unchanged or even increased.”

In the paper

“Most studies find worsened glucose tolerance after sleep curtailment, which may be beneficial from a teleological perspective, at least in the short term.”

In the paper

“Sleep efficiency improved after five months of treatment with 2 mg prolonged-release melatonin administered two hours before bedtime, while total sleep time was unaffected in 26 subjects with type 2 diabetes.170”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [170] Garfinkel D Zorin M Wainstein J Efficacy and safety of prolonged-release melatonin in insomnia patients with diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes 2011 4 307 313 21887103 PMC3160855

In the paper

“Overall, improving sleep duration and quality is a potential tool to counteract the epidemics of obesity and diabetes.”