Student or educator? Sign up with your school email and get 6 months of Pro free.
CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 2,064

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 10 of the 10 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets

Open access
Pager, Devah, Shepherd, Hana·2008·Annual Review of Sociology
DOI 10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and a wide range of other social domains has renewed interest in the possible role of discrimination. And yet, unlike in the pre–civil rights era, when racial prejudice and discrimination were overt and widespread, today discrimination is less readily identifiable, posing problems for social scientific conceptualization and measurement. This article reviews the relevant literature on discrimination, with an emphasis on racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions. We begin by defining discrimination and discussing relevant methods of measurement. We then provide an overview of major findings from studies of discrimination in each of the four domains; and, finally, we turn to a discussion of the individual, organizational, and structural mechanisms that may underlie contemporary forms of discrimination. This discussion seeks to orient readers to some of the key debates in the study of discrimination and to provide a roadmap for those interested in building upon this long and important line of research.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740

Cites

10 of 10 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Show all 10 references

Research works printed but not linked: 191

  1. Acker J, 1989, Doing Comparable Worth: Gender, Class, and Pay Equity
  2. Adorno T, 1950, The Authoritarian Personality
  3. Allport G, 1954, The Nature of Prejudice
  4. Apgar WC, 2005, The Geography of Opportunity: Race and Housing Choice in Metropolitan America, 101
  5. Arrow KJ, 1972, Racial Discrimination in Economic Life, 83
  6. 10.2307/1289861 · DOI
  7. Ayres I, 1995, Am. Econ. Rev., 85, 304
  8. 10.2307/2094893 · DOI · Paper page
  9. 10.2307/2786876 · DOI · Paper page
  10. Becker GS, 1957, The Economics of Discrimination
  11. 10.1525/sp.2005.52.3.419 · DOI · Paper page
  12. 10.1007/BF02692733 · DOI
  13. 10.1007/BF00115320 · DOI
  14. 10.1257/0002828042002561 · DOI · Paper page
  15. 10.1086/228350 · DOI · Paper page
  16. 10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.544 · DOI · Paper page
  17. 10.2307/2089093 · DOI
  18. Blau F, 1987, Working Women: Past, Present, Future, 37
  19. 10.2307/1388607 · DOI · Paper page
  20. Bobo L, 1997, Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change, 93, 10.5040/9798216188131.ch-005 · DOI
  21. Bobo L, 1997, Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change, 15, 10.5040/9798216188131.ch-002 · DOI
  22. Bobo L, 2006, Soc. Res., 73, 445, 10.1353/sor.2006.0010 · DOI · Paper page
  23. Bonczar TP, 1997, Lifetime likelihood of going to state or federal prison
  24. Bowles S, 2007, Is equal opportunity enough? A theory of persistent group inequality
  25. 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1987.tb02329.x · DOI · Paper page
  26. 10.1023/B:REAL.0000044020.67401.51 · DOI
  27. 10.2307/2096391 · DOI · Paper page
  28. 10.1086/588738 · DOI · Paper page
  29. Castillo MD, 1998, Mon. Labor Rev., 121, 34
  30. 10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100002 · DOI · Paper page
  31. 10.1525/sp.1989.36.4.03a00010 · DOI
  32. 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1993.tb00120.x · DOI
  33. Conley D, 1999, Being Black, Living in the Red: Race, Wealth, and Social Policy in America
  34. Council of Economic Advisers, 1997, Annual Report
  35. Day T, 1996, Mortgages, minorities, and HMDA
  36. 10.1177/01461672952111002 · DOI
  37. 10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123127 · DOI · Paper page
  38. 10.2307/2095303 · DOI
  39. 10.1086/210044 · DOI
  40. 10.1086/230269 · DOI · Paper page
  41. 10.2307/1228893 · DOI
  42. 10.1007/1-4020-3455-5_13 · DOI
  43. 10.1111/1467-9280.00262 · DOI · Paper page
  44. 10.4337/9781847200150.00016 · DOI
  45. 10.1086/229939 · DOI · Paper page
  46. 10.1086/321303 · DOI · Paper page
  47. 10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.258 · DOI
  48. 10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100023 · DOI · Paper page
  49. 10.1086/230580 · DOI · Paper page
  50. 10.1111/j.1465-7295.1996.tb01373.x · DOI
  51. 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225 · DOI
  52. Feagin JR, 2006, Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression
  53. Feagin JR, 1994, Living with Racism: The Black Middle-Class Experience
  54. 10.1080/01944368308976561 · DOI
  55. 10.1086/210432 · DOI · Paper page
  56. Fernandez RM, 2007, Job queues: gender and race at the application interface
  57. 10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100034 · DOI
  58. 10.1111/j.1535-6841.2004.00079.x · DOI
  59. Fiske ST, 1998, Handbook of Social Psychology, 357
  60. 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878 · DOI · Paper page
  61. 10.2307/2534085 · DOI
  62. 10.3386/w7073 · DOI · Paper page
  63. 10.1162/0033553041502180 · DOI · Paper page
  64. Gallup Organ, 1997, The Gallup Poll Social Audit on Black/White Relations in the United States
  65. 10.1080/10511482.2002.9521447 · DOI
  66. Glennon D, 1994, An evaluation of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston's study of racial discrimination in mortgage lending
  67. 10.1086/262035 · DOI
  68. 10.2307/1392485 · DOI
  69. 10.7208/chicago/9780226518404.001.0001 · DOI · Paper page
  70. 10.2307/3088922 · DOI · Paper page
  71. Hakken J, 1979, Discrimination Against Chicanos in the Dallas Rental Housing Market: An Experimental Extension of the HMPS
  72. 10.1509/jppm.24.1.163.63893 · DOI
  73. 10.1257/jep.12.2.101 · DOI · Paper page
  74. Heckman J, 1989, Am. Econ. Rev., 79, 138
  75. 10.1086/525510 · DOI
  76. 10.1111/1467-8306.00093 · DOI
  77. Holzer HJ, 1996, What Employers Want: Job Prospects for Less-Educated Workers
  78. 10.1111/1467-9620.00280 · DOI
  79. 10.2307/2696075 · DOI
  80. Horne DK, 1994, FDIC Bank. Rev., 1
  81. 10.2307/258823 · DOI · Paper page
  82. Immergluck D, 1999, Two Steps Back: The Dual Mortgage Market, Predatory Lending, and the Undoing of Community Development, Nov
  83. 10.1525/9780520337794 · DOI · Paper page
  84. 10.1111/j.1747-4469.2006.00038.x · DOI
  85. Kanter RM, 1977, Men and Women of the Corporation
  86. 10.1177/0002764298041007008 · DOI
  87. 10.2307/2676349 · DOI
  88. 10.1037//0022-3514.40.3.414 · DOI
  89. Kirschenman J, 1991, The Urban Underclass, 203
  90. 10.2307/1229191 · DOI · Paper page
  91. 10.1257/jep.12.2.41 · DOI
  92. Lane KA, 2007, Implicit Measures of Attitudes: Procedures and Controversies, 59
  93. 10.1086/298060 · DOI
  94. 10.1086/224459 · DOI
  95. Liebowitz SJ, 1993, Wall Street J., A14
  96. 10.1162/003355304772839524 · DOI · Paper page
  97. 10.1353/dem.2004.0007 · DOI · Paper page
  98. Loury GC, 2001, Understanding Poverty, 447, 10.4159/9780674030176-016 · DOI
  99. Loury GC, 2002, The Anatomy of Racial Inequality
  100. 10.1086/209890 · DOI
  101. 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195149326.001.0001 · DOI
  102. 10.1525/sp.2005.52.2.148 · DOI
  103. 10.1093/aler/ahl005 · DOI
  104. Massey DS, 2007, Categorically Unequal: The American Stratification System
  105. Massey DS, 1993, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass
  106. 10.1080/01419870500351159 · DOI
  107. 10.1177/10780870122184957 · DOI · Paper page
  108. McConahay JB, 1986, Prejudice, Discrimination and Racism, 91
  109. 10.1037/0021-9010.91.3.538 · DOI
  110. 10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415 · DOI · Paper page
  111. Merton RK, 1970, The Study of Society, 449
  112. Mittman BS, 1992, Res. Sociol. Organ., 10, 3
  113. 10.2105/AJPH.2004.058040 · DOI · Paper page
  114. 10.1023/A:1023529910567 · DOI
  115. Moskos C, 1996, All That We Can Be: Black Leadership and Racial Integration the Army Way
  116. Moss P, 2001, Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill and Hiring in America
  117. 10.1086/298223 · DOI
  118. 10.1353/dem.2002.0030 · DOI
  119. Munnell AH, 1996, Am. Econ. Rev., 86, 25
  120. Myrdal G, 1944, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy
  121. National Research Council, 2004, Measuring Racial Discrimination. Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination
  122. 10.1086/262045 · DOI · Paper page
  123. 10.1007/1-4020-3455-5_1 · DOI
  124. 10.2307/2525981 · DOI · Paper page
  125. Ogbu J, 1991, Minority Status and Schooling, 249
  126. Oliver M, 1997, Black Wealth, White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality
  127. Omi M, 1994, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s
  128. Orfield G, 2005, Why Segregation Matters: Poverty and Educational Inequality
  129. 10.1177/0002716206294796 · DOI
  130. 10.7208/chicago/9780226644851.001.0001 · DOI · Paper page
  131. Parcel TL, 1983, Ascription and Labor Markets: Race and Sex Differences in Earnings.
  132. Pattillo M, 2003, Imprisoning America: The Social Effects of Mass Incarceration
  133. 10.1086/378536 · DOI
  134. 10.1086/318961 · DOI
  135. Pettigrew TF, 1982, Dimensions of Ethnicity, 1
  136. Phelps E, 1972, Am. Econ. Rev., 62, 659
  137. Phillips-Patrick FJ, 1996, J. Real Estate Res., 11, 13, 10.1080/10835547.1996.12090814 · DOI
  138. 10.1177/0261927X99018001002 · DOI
  139. 10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123132 · DOI · Paper page
  140. Reskin BF, 1998, The Realities of Affirmative Action in Employment
  141. 10.2307/2654387 · DOI · Paper page
  142. 10.2307/3088900 · DOI · Paper page
  143. 10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.335 · DOI · Paper page
  144. 10.1111/1468-0297.00080 · DOI · Paper page
  145. Ridley S, 1989, Taxi Service in the District of Columbia: Is It Influenced by Patrons’ Race and Destination?
  146. Roscigno VJ, 2007, The Face of Discrimination: How Race and Gender Impact Work and Home Lives
  147. Roscigno VJ, Karafin D, Tester G. 2007. Race and the process of housing discrimination. See Roscigno 2007 pp. 153–70
  148. Ross S, Yinger J. 1999. Does discrimination in mortgage lending exist? The Boston Fed study and its critics. See Turner & Skidmore 1999, pp. 43–83
  149. 10.7551/mitpress/1933.001.0001 · DOI · Paper page
  150. 10.1016/1051-1377(92)90009-F · DOI
  151. 10.1111/1540-6229.00685 · DOI
  152. Royster D, 2003, Race and the Invisible Hand: How White Networks Exclude Black Men from Blue Collar Jobs
  153. 10.1086/449253 · DOI · Paper page
  154. Schafer R, 1981, Discrimination in Mortgage Lending
  155. Schiller B, 2004, The Economics of Poverty and Discrimination
  156. Schuman H, 2001, Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations
  157. Siskin BR, 1996, Mortgage Lending, Racial Discrimination, and Federal Policy, 451
  158. Skrentny J, 2001, Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America
  159. 10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141048 · DOI
  160. Smith TW, 1991, Ethnic Images: GSS Top. Rep. No. 19
  161. 10.2307/2111369 · DOI · Paper page
  162. Squires GD, 1994, Communities in Black and White: The Intersections of Race, Class, and Uneven Development
  163. 10.1177/03079201030283001 · DOI
  164. Stuart G, 2003, Discriminating Risk: The U.S. Mortgage Lending Industry in the Twentieth Century, 10.7591/9781501729966 · DOI
  165. 10.1017/S0265052500001114 · DOI
  166. 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1982.tb01006.x · DOI
  167. 10.1525/9780520924222 · DOI · Paper page
  168. 10.1086/431779 · DOI
  169. Tonry M. 1995. Malign Neglect: Race, Crime, and Punishment in America . New York: Oxford Univ. Press · DOI · Paper page
  170. Turner M, 1991, Opportunities Denied, Opportunities Diminished: Racial Discrimination in Hiring
  171. Turner MA, 2003, Discrimination in Metropolitan Housing Markets: National Results from Phase 2—Asians and Pacific Islanders
  172. Turner MA, 2003, Discrimination in Metropolitan Housing Markets: National Results from Phase 3—Native Americans
  173. Turner MA, 2005, The Geography of Opportunity: Race and Housing Choice in Metropolitan America, 81
  174. Turner MA, 2002, Discrimination in Metropolitan Housing Markets: National Results from Phase 1 HDS 2000
  175. 10.1037/e721552011-001 · DOI
  176. 10.1177/0730888403256454 · DOI
  177. 10.1525/9780520936171 · DOI · Paper page
  178. 10.1086/432780 · DOI · Paper page
  179. Wheeler ML. 1995. Diversity: business rationale and strategies. Res. Rep. No. 1130–95-RR , Conf. Board, New York
  180. Williams D, 2004, Closing the Gap: Improving the Health of Minority Elders in the New Millennium, 69
  181. 10.1525/sp.2005.52.2.181 · DOI
  182. 10.1177/0730888495022003002 · DOI
  183. 10.1177/0730888499026002002 · DOI
  184. Wilson WJ, 1978, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions
  185. 10.2307/2152085 · DOI · Paper page
  186. Winterle M, 1992, Work Force Diversity: Corporate Challenges, Corporate Responses
  187. Wissoker D, 1998, Testing for Discrimination in Home Insurance
  188. Yinger J, 1986, Am. Econ. Rev., 76, 881
  189. Yinger J, 1995, Closed Doors, Opportunities Lost: The Continuing Costs of Housing Discrimination
  190. 10.1257/jep.12.2.23 · DOI
  191. Zandi M, 1993, American Banker, 13

Cited by

Metadata

Authors
Pager, D., & Shepherd, H.
Venue
Annual Review of Sociology
Publisher
Annual Reviews
Published
2008-08-01
Volume
34
Issue
1
Pages
181-209
ISSN
  • 0360-0572 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-2115
DOI
10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740
OpenAlex
W2109862115
Cited by
2,064
References
10
FWCI
22.21
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
green

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Data sources

Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.