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Recent advances on Dirofilaria repens in dogs and humans in Europe

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Capelli, Gioia, Genchi, Claudio, Baneth, Gad, Bourdeau, Patrick, Brianti, Emanuele, Cardoso, Luís, Danesi, Patrizia, Fuehrer, Hans-Peter, Giannelli, Alessio, Ionică, Angela Monica, Maia, Carla, Modrý, David, Montarsi, Fabrizio, Krücken, Jürgen, Papadopoulos, Elias, Petrić, Dušan, Pfeffer, Martin, Savić, Sara, Otranto, Domenico, Poppert, Sven, Silaghi, Cornelia·2018·Parasites & Vectors
DOI 10.1186/s13071-018-3205-xPMC PMC6299983
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Abstract

Dirofilaria repens is a nematode affecting domestic and wild canids, transmitted by several species of mosquitoes. It usually causes a non-pathogenic subcutaneous infection in dogs and is the principal agent of human dirofilariosis in the Old World. In the last decades, D. repens has increased in prevalence in areas where it has already been reported and its distribution range has expanded into new areas of Europe, representing a paradigmatic example of an emergent pathogen. Despite its emergence and zoonotic impact, D. repens has received less attention by scientists compared to Dirofilaria immitis. In this review we report the recent advances of D. repens infection in dogs and humans, and transmission by vectors, and discuss possible factors that influence the spread and increase of this zoonotic parasite in Europe. There is evidence that D. repens has spread faster than D. immitis from the endemic areas of southern Europe to northern Europe. Climate change affecting mosquito vectors and the facilitation of pet travel seem to have contributed to this expansion; however, in the authors' opinion, the major factor is likely the rate of undiagnosed dogs continuing to perpetuate the life-cycle of D. repens. Many infected dogs remain undetected due to the subclinical nature of the disease, the lack of rapid and reliable diagnostic tools and the poor knowledge and still low awareness of D. repens in non-endemic areas. Improved diagnostic tools are warranted to bring D. repens diagnosis to the state of D. immitis diagnosis, as well as improved screening of imported dogs and promotion of preventative measures among veterinarians and dog owners. For vector-borne diseases involving pets, veterinarians play a significant role in prevention and should be more aware of their responsibility in reducing the impact of the zoonotic agents. In addition, they should enhance multisectorial collaboration with medical entomologists and the public health experts, under the concept and the actions of One Health-One Medicine.

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Fig. 1 Map showing the current distribution of Dirofilaria repens in dogs and humans in Europe
Fig. 1 Map showing the current distribution of Dirofilaria repens in dogs and humans in EuropeCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 2 Adult specimen of Dirofilaria repens detected in the subcutaneous tissue of a dog during a necropsy (courtesy of Riccardo Paolo Lia)
Fig. 2 Adult specimen of Dirofilaria repens detected in the subcutaneous tissue of a dog during a necropsy (courtesy of Riccardo Paolo Lia)CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 3 Developmental stages of Dirofilaria repens inside a mosquito (Aedes vexans) (courtesy of Cornelia Silaghi). a L1 day 2 pi; 335 × 9 μm, the stage still resembling a microfilaria. b L1 day 3 pI; 167 (214) × 18 μm, so-called sausage stage. c L1 day 5 pi; 198 (220) × 16.8 μm, so-called sausage stage, but more elongated. d L2 day 7 pi; 425 × 35 μm. e L2 late stage or L3 inside Malpighian tubules (black arrows), day 19 pi. f L3 day 16 pi, transition from thorax to head; 962 × 30 and 934 × 23 μm
Fig. 3 Developmental stages of Dirofilaria repens inside a mosquito (Aedes vexans) (courtesy of Cornelia Silaghi). a L1 day 2 pi; 335 × 9 μm, the stage still resembling a microfilaria. b L1 day 3 pI; 167 (214) × 18 μm, so-called sausage stage. c L1 day 5 pi; 198 (220) × 16.8 μm, so-called sausage stage, but more elongated. d L2 day 7 pi; 425 × 35 μm. e L2 late stage or L3 inside Malpighian tubules (black arrows), day 19 pi. f L3 day 16 pi, transition from thorax to head; 962 × 30 and 934 × 23 μmCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 4 Dirofilaria repens visible in the subconjunctiva of a human eye (courtesy of Ramin Khoramnia and Aharon Wegner)
Fig. 4 Dirofilaria repens visible in the subconjunctiva of a human eye (courtesy of Ramin Khoramnia and Aharon Wegner)CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 5 Adult Dirofilaria repens removed from the subcutaneous tissue of a dog during necropsy (courtesy of Riccardo Paolo Lia)
Fig. 5 Adult Dirofilaria repens removed from the subcutaneous tissue of a dog during necropsy (courtesy of Riccardo Paolo Lia)CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 6 Aspect of the ridges of the cuticle of Dirofilaria repens under scanning electron microscopy (courtesy of Sven Poppert). Scale-bars: 100 μm
Fig. 6 Aspect of the ridges of the cuticle of Dirofilaria repens under scanning electron microscopy (courtesy of Sven Poppert). Scale-bars: 100 μmCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 7 Cuticle morphology of Dirofilaria repens under scanning electron microscopy (courtesy of Salvatore Giannetto). Scale-bar: 200 μm
Fig. 7 Cuticle morphology of Dirofilaria repens under scanning electron microscopy (courtesy of Salvatore Giannetto). Scale-bar: 200 μmCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 8 The round head of the microfilaria of Dirofilaria repens (Knott’s test). Scale-bar: 20 μm
Fig. 8 The round head of the microfilaria of Dirofilaria repens (Knott’s test). Scale-bar: 20 μmCC BY · PubMed Central

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Citations

Cites

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Authors
Capelli, G., Genchi, C., Baneth, G., Bourdeau, P., Brianti, E., Cardoso, L., Danesi, P., Fuehrer, H.-P., Giannelli, A., Ionică, A. M., Maia, C., Modrý, D., Montarsi, F., Krücken, J., Papadopoulos, E., Petrić, D., Pfeffer, M., Savić, S., Otranto, D., Poppert, S., & Silaghi, C.
Affiliations
  • Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IT)
  • University of Milan (IT)
  • Hebrew University of Jerusalem (IL)
  • Université Nantes Angers Le Mans (FR)
  • University of Messina (IT)
  • University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna (AT)
  • University of Bari Aldo Moro (IT)
  • University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca (RO)
  • Universidade Nova de Lisboa (PT)
  • University of Veterinary Sciences Brno (CZ)
  • Freie Universität Berlin (DE)
  • Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR)
  • University of Novi Sad (RS)
  • Leipzig University (DE)
  • Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad" (RS)
  • Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (CH)
  • Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (DE)
Corresponding author
Capelli, Gioia
ORCID
Venue
Parasites & Vectors
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2018-12
Volume
11
Issue
1
Pages
663-663
ISSN
1756-3305 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/s13071-018-3205-x
PMC
PMC6299983
OpenAlex
W2905090683
Cited by
298
References
268
Citations by year
2026: 20 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 1
FWCI
3.67
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Parasites & Vectors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • edoc (University of Basel) (acceptedVersion)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Refubium (Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • CINECA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (University of Bari Aldo Moro) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Universitätsbibliothek der FU Berlin Hochschulschriftenstelle u. Dokumentenserver (cc-by)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
  • edoc (University of Basel)
Funders
Regione del Veneto
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Parasitic Diseases Research and Treatment
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Helminth infection and control
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Research on Leishmaniasis Studies
Keywords
Dirofilaria repens, canine dirofilariasis, zoonotic nematodes, emerging pathogens, geographic range expansion, mosquito vectors, climate change, imported dogs, asymptomatic infection, diagnostic tools, One Health, Dirofilaria immitis
MeSH terms
Animals, Dirofilariasis, Dog Diseases, Dogs, Europe, Humans, Insect Vectors, Culicidae, Dirofilaria repens

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