Regulation of short-chain fatty acid production
Open accessAbstract
Short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) formation by intestinal bacteria is regulated by many different host, environmental, dietary and microbiological factors. In broad terms, however, substrate availability, bacterial species composition of the microbiota and intestinal transit time largely determine the amounts and types of SCFA that are produced in healthy individuals. The majority of SCFA in the gut are derived from bacterial breakdown of complex carbohydrates, especially in the proximal bowel, but digestion of proteins and peptides makes an increasing contribution to SCFA production as food residues pass through the bowel. Bacterial hydrogen metabolism also affects the way in which SCFA are made. This outcome can be seen through the effects of inorganic electron acceptors (nitrate, sulfate) on fermentation processes, where they facilitate the formation of more oxidised SCFA such as acetate, at the expense of more reduced fatty acids, such as butyrate. Chemostat studies using pure cultures of saccharolytic gut micro-organisms demonstrate that C availability and growth rate strongly affect the outcome of fermentation. For example, acetate and formate are the major bifidobacterial fermentation products formed during growth under C limitation, whereas acetate and lactate are produced when carbohydrate is in excess. Lactate is also used as an electron sink in Clostridium perfringens and, to a lesser extent, in Bacteroides fragilis. In the latter organism acetate and succinate are the major fermentation products when substrate is abundant, whereas succinate is decarboxylated to produce propionate when C and energy sources are limiting.
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The primary source of SCFAs is the microbial fermentation of specific host-indigestible dietary fibers.
“The primary source of SCFAs is the microbial fermentation of specific host-indigestible dietary fibers (Baxter et al., 2019;Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 2003)”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 2003
Human fecal SCFA levels are approximately 60 g/kg for acetate, 10-20 g/kg for propionate, and 3.5-32.6 g/kg for butyrate.
“Levels of SCFAs in human feces are approximately 60 g/kg for acetate, 10-20 g/kg for propionate and 3.5-32.6g/kg for butyrate (Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 2003;McOrist et al., 2011)”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 2003
The section on host, environmental and microbiological factors reports an approximately 57:22:21 acetate:propionate:butyrate ratio in human large-intestinal contents, not concentrations in feces. Searches for fecal concentrations and the claimed g/kg values found no passage in our copy giving those figures; the figure caption discusses intestinal concentrations but does not supply them. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
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- Authors
- Macfarlane, S., & Macfarlane, G. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Dundee (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Macfarlane, George T.
- ORCID
- Macfarlane, Sandra
- Venue
- Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2003-02
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 67-72
- ISSN
- 0029-6651 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2719
- OpenAlex
- W2163878401
- Cited by
- 1,939
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 92 · 2025: 159 · 2024: 185 · 2023: 157 · 2022: 157 · 2021: 162 · 2020: 151 · 2019: 134 · 2018: 99 · 2017: 105 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 62 · 2014: 79 · 2013: 56 · 2012: 47
- FWCI
- 5.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of The Nutrition Society (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Johns Hopkins University
- University of Cambridge
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Microbial Metabolites in Food Biotechnology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Keywords
- short-chain fatty acids, gut microbiota, intestinal fermentation, acetate, butyrate, propionate, lactate, carbohydrate availability, Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium perfringens, Bifidobacterium, dietary regulation, intestinal transit time
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Bacteria, Colon, Dietary Carbohydrates, Dietary Proteins, Fatty Acids, Volatile, Fermentation, Gastrointestinal Transit, Humans, Oxidation-Reduction, Bacterial Physiological Phenomena
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