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Cited by 61Diabetes Treatment and ManagementDiabetes Management and ResearchDiabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins

A critical review on diabetes mellitus type 1 and type 2 management approaches: from lifestyle modification to current and novel targets and therapeutic agents.

Open access
Tegegne, Bantayehu Addis, Adugna, Adane, Yenet, Aderaw, Yihunie Belay, Wubetu, Yibeltal, Yared, Dagne, Abebe, Hibstu Teffera, Zigale, Amare, Gashaw Azanaw +4 more·2024·Frontiers in Endocrinology
DOI 10.3389/fendo.2024.1440456PMC PMC11527681
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Abstract

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has emerged as an international health epidemic due to its rapid rise in prevalence. Consequently, scientists and or researchers will continue to find novel, safe, effective, and affordable anti-diabetic medications. The goal of this review is to provide a thorough overview of the role that lifestyle changes play in managing diabetes, as well as the standard medications that are currently being used to treat the condition and the most recent advancements in the development of novel medical treatments that may be used as future interventions for the disease. A literature search was conducted using research databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Wiley Online Library, Google Scholar, etc. Data were then abstracted from these publications using words or Phrases like “pathophysiology of diabetes”, “Signe and symptoms of diabetes”, “types of diabetes”, “major risk factors and complication of diabetes”, “diagnosis of diabetes”, “lifestyle modification for diabetes”, “current antidiabetic agents”, and “novel drugs and targets for diabetes management” that were published in English and had a strong scientific foundation. Special emphasis was given to the importance of lifestyle modification, as well as current, novel, and emerging/promising drugs and targets helpful for the management of both T1DM and T2DM.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This critical review summarizes lifestyle modification, current antidiabetic drug classes, and novel/emerging targets for managing type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. It concludes that no cure exists, current therapies mainly slow progression, and multimodal early intervention plus new agents are needed.

Key findings

  • T2DM accounts for >90% of diabetes cases; T1DM involves autoimmune pancreatic β-cell destruction, with 57 genetic risk loci identified and about 85% of patients having circulating islet cell antibodies.
  • Lifestyle modification can reduce T2DM risk by about 58% over 3 years; nutrition therapy lowers HbA1c by 1–2%; exercise improves HbA1c by 0.66%; moderate weight loss of ≈7% body weight is advised; adults should get at least 150 min/week moderate or 75 min/week vigorous activity.
  • Current pharmacotherapy includes insulin, biguanides, sulfonylureas, meglitinides, α-glucosidase inhibitors, thiazolidinediones, GLP-1 agonists, GIP agonists, DPP-4 inhibitors, and SGLT-2 inhibitors; these lower glucose and symptoms but do not cure diabetes.
  • Novel/emerging strategies include vitamin C/E, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, PCSK9 inhibitors, PTPase-1B inhibitors, dual GLP-1/GIP agonists, D2 agonists, bile acid sequestrants/statins, amylin analogues, inorganic nitrate/nitrite, GABAergic targets, probiotics, FBPase inhibitors, gene therapy, stem cell immunotherapy, monoclonal antibodies, and phytomedicine; tirzepatide produced a mean HbA1c reduction of 1.94% and mean weight loss of 11.3 kg after 26 weeks at 15 mg/week.

Methods

  • Narrative/critical review based on literature searches in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Wiley Online Library, Google Scholar, and other databases.
  • Search terms included “pathophysiology of diabetes,” “signs and symptoms of diabetes,” “types of diabetes,” “major risk factors and complication of diabetes,” “diagnosis of diabetes,” “lifestyle modification for diabetes,” “current antidiabetic agents,” and “novel drugs and targets for diabetes management”; included publications were in English and had a strong scientific foundation.
  • Data were abstracted from selected publications, with special emphasis on lifestyle modification and current, novel, and emerging drugs/targets for T1DM and T2DM.

Limitations

  • The paper states that global data on diabetes complications are scarce, especially for LMICs, and many estimates are self-reported or modeled using transition probabilities from high-income countries.
  • The paper states that evidence for dietary supplements in diabetes is inconclusive due to small sample sizes, differences in participants, supplement formulations, dosages, study durations, and outcomes; it also states that current treatments do not cure diabetes and novel strategies cannot completely reverse, stop, or cure long-term effects.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative/critical review, it does not report a systematic protocol, search dates, inclusion/exclusion criteria, quality appraisal, or quantitative synthesis, so selection and interpretation may be subject to bias.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fendo.2024.1440456

Cites

146 of 147 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

98 of 139 cited sources checked · 41 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Vitamin E consumption is effective in lowering insulin resistance and HbA1c in DM patients.

    “Similarly, Vitamin E consumption is effective in lowering insulin resistance and HbA1c in DM Patients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79] Asbaghi, 2023, Effect of vitamin E intake on glycemic control and insulin resistance in diabetic patients: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, Nutr J source
  • Premisecitation

    Probiotics from Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli taken orally showed encouraging antidiabetic effects.

    “Probiotics from Bifidobacteria (including Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium longum, and Bifidobacterium breve) and Lactobacilli (including Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. that were taken orally showed encouraging antidiabetic effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [105] Tegegne, 2022, Probiotics, their prophylactic and therapeutic applications in human health development: A review of the literature, Heliyon source
    • cites [106] Sun, 2020, Using probiotics for type 2 diabetes mellitus intervention: Advances, questions, and potential, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr source
    • cites [107] Mishra, 2019, Probiotics and prebiotics for the amelioration of type 1 diabetes: Present and future perspectives, Microorganisms source

      Section 3.1 (Animal Studies; no page given) reports beneficial effects of fed Lactobacillus strains and Bifidobacterium-containing probiotics in diabetic mice and rats. That supports the broad claim, but the paper does not substantiate antidiabetic effects for most of the specific species listed in the citing sentence; the evidence cited here is chiefly from animal studies. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Meglitinide derivatives, as monotherapy or in conjunction with metformin, can help adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus improve their glycemic control in addition to nutrition and exercise.

    “Meglitinide derivatives, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with metformin, can help adults with T2DM improve their glycemic control in addition to nutrition and exercise (60, 61).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [60] Tahrani, 2016, Pharmacology and therapeutic implications of current drugs for type 2 diabetes mellitus, Nat Rev Endocrinol source
    • cites [61] Keegan, 2019, Endocrine pharmacology, Pharmacol Physiol anesthesia: Elsevier; source
  • Premisecitation

    For all patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, insulin is the main course of treatment.

    “For all T1DM patients, insulin is the main course of treatment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Silver, 2018, ADSG guidelines: insulin therapy in diabetes, Diabetes Ther source
  • Premisecitation

    The oral α-glucosidase inhibitors used to treat diabetes include voglibose, miglitol, and acarbose.

    “Among the oral AGIs used to treat diabetes are voglibose, miglitol, and acarbose.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [63] Derosa, 2012, [amp]]alpha;-Glucosidase inhibitors and their use in clinical practice, Arch Med Sci source
    • cites [64] Hossain, 2018, Chapter 34 - current antidiabetic drugs: review of their efficacy and safety source
  • May combine two claims. 33
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    D2 receptor agonist significantly lowered fasting blood sugar and HbA1c levels without causing severe negative effects.

    “D2 receptor agonist significantly lowered fast blood sugar and HbA1c levels without causing severe negative effects (90).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [90] Dereje, 2023, Dopamine 2 agonists for the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis, J Diabetes Metab Disord source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    SGLT-2 inhibitors lower the renal glucose threshold and raise urine glucose excretion, thereby lessening hyperglycemia.

    “Due to their ability to lower the renal glucose threshold and raise urine glucose excretion, these medicines lessen hyperglycemia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [74] Simes, 2019, Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors: A clinician's guide, Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes source
    • cites [75] Hsia, 2017, An update on sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes source
    • cites [76] Scheen, 2015, SGLT2 inhibition: efficacy and safety in type 2 diabetes treatment, Expert Opin Drug Saf source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metformin may harm a patient's ability to get a good night's sleep by causing atypical nightmares and, in rare instances, lactic acidosis.

    “it’s worth noting that metformin may harm a patient’s ability to get a good night’s sleep by causing atypical nightmares and, in rare instances, lactic acidosis (55).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] Susilawati, 2023, Review of the case reports on metformin, sulfonylurea, and thiazolidinedione therapies in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients, Med Sci (Basel) source

      Section 4, “Pharmacology of Metformin” (page unavailable), reports cases involving nightmares and says metformin-associated lactic acidosis is rare. It discusses lactic acidosis separately from sleep disorders, however, and does not say that lactic acidosis harms sleep. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Inorganic nitrate/nitrite may serve as a substitute for endogenous nitric oxide, improving glucose absorption and insulin signaling while reducing insulin resistance and diabetes problems.

    “Research from both in vitro and/or In vivo models suggests that inorganic nitrate/nitrite may serve as a substitute for endogenous nitric oxide (NO), improving glucose absorption and the signaling route for insulin while reducing insulin resistance and the problems associated with diabetes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [100] Bahadoran, 2015, Beneficial effects of inorganic nitrate/nitrite in type 2 diabetes and its complications, Nutr Metab (Lond) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sulfonylureas are insulin secretagogues that enhance the quantity of insulin produced by pancreatic β-cells, thereby reducing plasma glucose levels.

    “Sulfonylureas are secretagogues of insulin that enhance the quantity of insulin produced by pancreatic β-cells, therefore reducing plasma glucose levels (56–58).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [56] Sola, 2015, Sulfonylureas and their use in clinical practice, Arch Med Sci source
    • cites [57] Khunti, 2018, Do sulphonylureas still have a place in clinical practice, Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol source
    • cites [58] Kalra, 2018, Consensus recommendations on sulfonylurea and sulfonylurea combinations in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus - international task force, Indian J Endocrinol Metab source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Troglitazone was the first thiazolidinedione approved by the FDA, but it was taken off the market after 3 years because some patients experienced serious liver toxicity.

    “Troglitazone is the first TZDs drug that is approved by the FDA. However, it was taken off the market after 3 years as some patients’ experienced serious liver toxicity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] Damkaci, 2022, Synthesis of thiazolidinedione compound library, Compounds source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tirzepatide lowers systolic blood pressure in adults who are obese, which can reduce the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular issues.

    “In addition, tirzepatide lowers systolic blood pressure in adults who are obese, which can reduce the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular issues (86–88).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [86] Fisman, 2021, The dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist tirzepatide: a novel cardiometabolic therapeutic prospect, Cardiovasc Diabetol source

      The Background sections on tirzepatide trials and lipid effects report weight loss and changes in lipid biomarkers in people with type 2 diabetes, but do not report systolic blood-pressure outcomes in adults with obesity. Searches for systolic blood pressure, hypertension, and cardiovascular risk found no passage linking tirzepatide to the claimed blood-pressure reduction or consequent risk reduction. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [87] Chavda, 2022, Tirzepatide, a new era of dual-targeted treatment for diabetes and obesity: A mini-review, Molecules source

      Section 4.3 (Clinical Development; page not available) reports that tirzepatide reduced blood pressure, but does not specify systolic pressure or establish that finding in adults with obesity. The Introduction links obesity to hypertension and cardiovascular disease, but does not say that tirzepatide’s blood-pressure effect reduces those risks. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [88] Scheen, 2023, Dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonists: New advances for treating type-2 diabetes, Ann Endocrinol (Paris) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Amylin analogs such as pramlintide dramatically lower body weight, HbA1c levels, and even insulin dosage.

    “It has been demonstrated that amylin analogs, such as pramlintide, dramatically lower body weight, HbA1c levels, and even insulin dosage (98, 99).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [98] Adeghate, 2011, Amylin analogues in the treatment of diabetes mellitus: medicinal chemistry and structural basis of its function, Open Med Chem J source

      The Medicinal Chemistry of Amylin section (page not supplied) says pramlintide significantly reduced body weight, HbA1c values, and insulin dosage; the Conclusion repeats those three outcomes. Neither passage establishes that the reductions were dramatic, so the claim overstates their magnitude. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [99] Akter, 2016, Islet amyloid polypeptide: structure, function, and pathophysiology, J Diabetes Res source

      Section 16 identifies pramlintide as an IAPP analog and says IAPP coadministered with insulin improves control of fluctuating glucose levels. Section 7 reports weight-lowering effects of IAPP in obese rats and humans. Neither section establishes that pramlintide dramatically lowers body weight, HbA1c, or insulin dosage; the copy provides no magnitude for those effects. Page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Colesevelam improves glycaemic control through hepatic microRNAs 182-5p and increases the level of incretins and glucose-dependent insulin secretion.

    “It improves glycaemic control through hepatic microRNAs (miRNAs) 182–5p. Moreover, it increases the level of incretins and glucose-dependent insulin secretion (93, 94).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [93] Sansome, 2020, Mechanism of glucose-lowering by metformin in type 2 diabetes: Role of bile acids, Diabetes Obes Metab source
    • cites [94] Sedgeman, 2018, Intestinal bile acid sequestration improves glucose control by stimulating hepatic miR-182-5p in type 2 diabetes, Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol source

      The Introduction and Discussion (page numbers unavailable) support a likely hepatic miR-182-5p contribution to colesevelam’s glucose-lowering effect, rather than establishing it as the sole mechanism. The Results report increased GIP only after a glucose bolus in rats, with no significant GLP-1 increase; treated mice had higher fasting and postglucose insulin, but the paper does not establish increased glucose-dependent insulin secretion. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bromocriptine improves glycaemic control in T2DM when glycemia is poorly controlled by metformin plus basal-bolus insulin, or in individuals on high-dose basal-bolus insulin.

    “It is a postprandial insulin sensitizer, hence, improves glycaemic control in T2DM when glycemia is poorly controlled by metformin plus basal-bolus insulin, or individuals on high-dose basal-bolus insulin (91).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] Chamarthi, 2017, Effect of bromocriptine-QR therapy on glycemic control in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus whose dysglycemia is inadequately controlled on insulin, Postgrad Med source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    DPP-4 inhibitors increase the mass and function of pancreatic β-cells, increase insulin sensitivity in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue, decrease dyslipidaemias, increase fat oxidation and cholesterol efflux, lower hepatic triglyceride synthase, decline de novo lipogenesis, postpone stomach emptying, promote satiety, have anti-inflammatory and antiatherogenic impacts, improve endothelial function

    “Their mechanism of action includes: increasing the mass and function of pancreatic β-cells; increasing insulin sensitivity in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue; decreasing dyslipidaemias; increasing fat oxidation and cholesterol efflux; lowering hepatic triglyceride synthase, decline de novo lipogenesis; postponing the time for stomach emptying and promoting satiety, have anti-inflammatory and ant”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Rameshrad, 2019, Pharmacology of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and its use in the management of metabolic syndrome: a comprehensive review on drug repositioning, Daru source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    GLP-1 receptor agonist therapy for T2DM has benefits including delayed gastric emptying and inhibiting glucagon production from pancreatic α-cells.

    “The benefits of this form of therapy to treat T2DM include 1) delayed gastric emptying, and 2) inhibiting the production of glucagon from pancreatic α- cells (71–73).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [71] Srinivasan, 2019, Glycaemic management of type 2 diabetes, Medicine source
    • cites [72] Collins, 2024, Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists. [Updated 2024 Feb 29]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [73] Yao, 2024, Comparative effectiveness of GLP-1 receptor agonists on glycaemic control, body weight, and lipid profile for type 2 diabetes: systematic review and network meta-analysis, Bmj source

      The Introduction states that GLP-1 receptor agonists slow gastric emptying and inhibit glucagon secretion during hyperglycaemia. It does not state that they inhibit glucagon production in pancreatic α-cells; production is not the same as secretion, and the claim omits the hyperglycaemia condition. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Activation of GABA receptors leads to Ca2+-influx stimulating or activation of PI3K/Akt/PKB pathway resulting in increased insulin release, promotes pancreatic β-cell proliferation, and inhibits apoptosis.

    “Pancreas β-cells express gamma amino butyric acid receptor A/B (GABAA/BRs) and activation of GABA receptors leads to Ca2+-influx stimulating or activation of PI3K/Akt/PKB pathway resulting in increased insulin release promotes pancreatic β-cells proliferation and inhibits apoptosis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim4 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [101] Fiorina, 2013, GABAergic system in β-cells: from autoimmunity target to regeneration tool, Diabetes source

      The “GABA AND β-CELLS” section (page not provided) says β-cells express GABAA and GABAB receptors and that receptor activation increases insulin release, promotes proliferation, and reduces apoptosis. It describes GABAB as a Ca2+ or K+ channel, but does not establish the claimed Ca2+ influx mechanism or mention PI3K/Akt/PKB activation. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [102] Jin, 2013, GABA is an effective immunomodulatory molecule, Amino Acids source

      The References (page unavailable) list a study titled “GABA exerts protective and regenerative effects on islet beta cells,” which supports the claim’s broad point about β-cell protection and regeneration. But this paper does not state that β-cell GABA-receptor activation increases insulin release, promotes proliferation or inhibits apoptosis through Ca2+ influx or PI3K/Akt/PKB. Its Conclusion (page unavailable) discusses possible calcium entry in immune cells, not β-cells. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [103] Wan, 2015, GABAergic system in the endocrine pancreas: a new target for diabetes treatment, Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes source

      The β-Cells subsection of “Signaling mechanisms of GABA action” reports GABA-associated calcium signaling and Akt activation that promote β-cell proliferation and survival; the preclinical-therapy section also reports decreased apoptosis. But the paper does not establish that this pathway increases insulin release: its signaling discussion says GABAB-receptor activation can inhibit insulin secretion at high glucose levels, and describes GABAB-mediated CREB activation as independent of PI3K/Akt. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [104] Bhat, 2010, Inhibitory role for GABA in autoimmune inflammation, Proc Natl Acad Sci source

      The Results describe GABA-A receptor signaling in macrophages and other antigen-presenting cells, including changes in MAPK phosphorylation and inflammatory cytokine production. Searches for pancreatic β-cells, insulin release, Ca2+ influx, PI3K/Akt/PKB, proliferation, and apoptosis found no passage addressing the attributed β-cell effects. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Exercise, with or without a notable reduction in body weight, can enhance glycemic management by reducing HbA1c by 0.66% and can enhance patients' overall quality of life.

    “Research indicates that exercise, with or without a notable reduction in body weight, can enhance glycemic management (a reduction of 0.66% in the HbA1C level) and enhance patients’ overall quality of life (45, 47, 48).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [45] Chaudhury, 2017, Clinical review of antidiabetic drugs: implications for type 2 diabetes mellitus management, Front Endocrinol source
    • cites [47] Asif, 2014, The prevention and control the type-2 diabetes by changing lifestyle and dietary pattern, J Educ Health Promot source

      The 'Role of Physical Activity or Exercise' section (page unavailable) says regular activity lowers blood glucose. It does not report a 0.66% HbA1c reduction or establish that the effect occurs without notable weight loss. The 'Glucose testing' subsection says blood-glucose control helps people feel better, but does not specifically attribute an improvement in overall quality of life to exercise. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [48] Doglikuu, 2021, Association of adherence to diabetics feeding recommendation with glycaemic control and with malnutrition risk among normal weight persons with type 2 diabetes in Ghana, Malays J Med Sci source
    • Rests on an assumption: Food intake and exercise are the two main determinants of energy balance and are the cornerstones of diabetes mellitus management.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    GABA regulates both the survival and regeneration of human pancreatic β-cells.

    “Thus, GABA regulates both the survival and regeneration of human pancreatic β-cells.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim4 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [101] Fiorina, 2013, GABAergic system in β-cells: from autoimmunity target to regeneration tool, Diabetes source
    • cites [102] Jin, 2013, GABA is an effective immunomodulatory molecule, Amino Acids source

      The References (page unavailable) list a study titled “GABA exerts protective and regenerative effects on islet beta cells,” which supports the general survival-and-regeneration point. The cited paper’s own text does not establish those effects specifically in human pancreatic β-cells; its Introduction (page unavailable) says only that GABA is present in the pancreas and pancreatic islets. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [103] Wan, 2015, GABAergic system in the endocrine pancreas: a new target for diabetes treatment, Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes source
    • cites [104] Bhat, 2010, Inhibitory role for GABA in autoimmune inflammation, Proc Natl Acad Sci source

      The Abstract and Results describe GABA’s effects on immune cells and autoimmune inflammation, including a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Searches for human pancreatic β-cells, their survival, and their regeneration found no passage addressing those outcomes. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PCSK9 inhibitors such as evolocumab and inclisiran lower LDL cholesterol levels and reduce the rate of cardiovascular events among patients with established cardiovascular disease accompanied by T2DM.

    “PCSK9 inhibitors like evolocumab and inclisiran have been shown to lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and to reduce the rate of cardiovascular events among patients with established cardiovascular disease accompanied with T2DM (81, 82).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [81] Picard, 2019, Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) in Alzheimer's disease: A genetic and proteomic multi-cohort study, PloS One source

      The Introduction states that evolocumab lowers LDL cholesterol and reduces cardiovascular events in patients with established cardiovascular disease. It does not extend that finding to inclisiran or specify patients with accompanying type 2 diabetes (T2DM); searches for inclisiran and T2DM found no supporting passage. No page number was supplied for the indexed Introduction. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [82] Banerjee, 2022, Inclisiran: a small interfering RNA strategy targeting PCSK9 to treat hypercholesterolemia, Expert Opin Drug Saf source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    α-glucosidase inhibitors delay the absorption of carbohydrates, which lessens an increase in blood sugar levels after meals by about 3 mmol/l.

    “They delay the absorption of carbohydrates, which lessens an increase in blood sugar levels after meals by about 3 mmol/l (reduced postprandial glucose).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [63] Derosa, 2012, [amp]]alpha;-Glucosidase inhibitors and their use in clinical practice, Arch Med Sci source

      The Mechanism of action section (page unavailable) explains that α-glucosidase inhibitors impede the digestion of complex carbohydrates, and the Introduction says they reduce postprandial hyperglycemia. The passages found do not establish the claimed reduction of about 3 mmol/l; a search for that value found no supporting result. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [64] Hossain, 2018, Chapter 34 - current antidiabetic drugs: review of their efficacy and safety source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Early pharmacologic therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus is linked to improving glucose control and lowering long-term consequences.

    “Improving glucose control and lowering long-term consequences in T2DM are linked to early pharmacologic therapy beginning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [51] Type 2 diabetes mellitus treatment & management 2024 Romesh KhardoriM

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [52] Elkhalifa, 2024, Novel therapeutic agents for management of diabetes mellitus: A hope for drug designing against diabetes mellitus, Life source

      The Introduction (section 1; page unavailable) describes drugs used to manage hyperglycemia, and the Conclusions (section 4; page unavailable) say newer drugs help maintain blood glucose within the desired range. Neither passage links early initiation of pharmacologic therapy in T2DM to improved control or fewer long-term consequences. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: Treatment and management of diabetes mellitus is a universal health problem and successful treatment is yet to be discovered.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    DPP-4 inhibitors are not associated with hypoglycemia or weight gain, have a good safety profile, and are used as an alternative to drugs such as metformin and sulfonylureas when those fail.

    “The three main advantages of these drugs are: 1) not associated with hypoglycemia or weight gain; 2) have a good safety profile; and; 3) used as an alternative to drugs such as metformin and sulfonylureas when fail.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Rameshrad, 2019, Pharmacology of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and its use in the management of metabolic syndrome: a comprehensive review on drug repositioning, Daru source

      The Pharmacology of DPP-4 inhibitors section (page unavailable) reports a low incidence of hypoglycemia and lack of weight gain, while Side effects calls the drugs generally safe. Clinical studies describes a DPP-4 inhibitor as second-line therapy with metformin or as a replacement for a sulfonylurea, but does not say it is used when both metformin and sulfonylureas fail. Drug interactions also reports increased hypoglycemia risk when DPP-4 inhibitors are combined with sulfonylureas or insulin, so the unqualified claim of no association overstates the source. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compared to insulin monotherapy, patients with T1DM who received amylin analog in addition to insulin experienced a greater reduction in pre-prandial hyperglycemia and a corresponding decrease in glucagon levels.

    “Compared to insulin monotherapy, patients with T1DM who received amylin analog in addition to insulin experienced a greater reduction in pre-prandial hyperglycemia and a corresponding decrease in glucagon levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [98] Adeghate, 2011, Amylin analogues in the treatment of diabetes mellitus: medicinal chemistry and structural basis of its function, Open Med Chem J source

      The Medicinal Chemistry of Amylin section reports that adding an amylin analogue to insulin in a small cohort of adolescents with type 1 diabetes produced a greater reduction in hyperglycemia and a concomitant reduction in glucagon than insulin alone. It calls the hyperglycemia “proprandial,” while the studies it cites in the References describe postprandial hyperglycemia; the copy does not support the claim’s pre-prandial timing. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [99] Akter, 2016, Islet amyloid polypeptide: structure, function, and pathophysiology, J Diabetes Res source

      Section 16 (page unavailable) says coadministering IAPP with insulin normalizes fluctuating glucose levels better than insulin alone and identifies pramlintide as an IAPP analog approved for type 1 diabetes. Sections 1 and 7 say IAPP suppresses glucagon release. The paper does not report the claimed comparison in patients with T1DM specifically for pre-prandial hyperglycemia or a corresponding measured decrease in glucagon levels. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Probiotics may boost incretins, decrease endoplasmic reticulum stress, decrease systemic lipopolysaccharide levels, improve peripheral insulin sensitivity, and preserve the integrity of the gut.

    “Probiotics may boost incretins, decrease endoplasmic reticulum stress, decrease systemic lipopolysaccharide levels, improve peripheral insulin sensitivity, and preserve the integrity of the gut.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [105] Tegegne, 2022, Probiotics, their prophylactic and therapeutic applications in human health development: A review of the literature, Heliyon source
    • cites [106] Sun, 2020, Using probiotics for type 2 diabetes mellitus intervention: Advances, questions, and potential, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr source
    • cites [107] Mishra, 2019, Probiotics and prebiotics for the amelioration of type 1 diabetes: Present and future perspectives, Microorganisms source

      Section 3 (page unavailable) says probiotics may increase GLP-1, an incretin, and that specific strains help maintain gut membrane integrity and prevent leakiness and endotoxemia. It does not say probiotics decrease endoplasmic reticulum stress or systemic lipopolysaccharide levels. Section 5 (page unavailable) mentions improved insulin sensitivity only for metformin combined with probiotics and/or prebiotics, not probiotics alone. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Teplizumab therapy is a powerful means of delaying the decrease in C-peptide production and can support the maintenance of β-cell function.

    “According to a number of human clinical trials, teplizumab therapy is a powerful means of delaying the decrease in C-peptide production and can support the maintenance of β-cell function (126, 127).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [126] Ke, 2020, Evolving antibody therapies for the treatment of type 1 diabetes, Front Immunol source

      The Anti-CD3 Therapy section reports sustained C-peptide responses and insulin production for two years after teplizumab treatment in newly diagnosed patients. It also says the phase III trials missed their primary endpoints and reduced C-peptide loss appeared in a subset on post-hoc analysis. Those qualifications do not support calling teplizumab a broadly “powerful means” of preserving β-cell function. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [127] Nagy, 2022, New therapeutic approaches for type 1 diabetes: Disease-modifying therapies, World J Diabetes source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Preclinical research shows that gene therapy can be applied in various ways and preserves pancreatic β-cells, which optimizes insulin secretion levels.

    “Research conducted on animals (preclinical) shows that gene therapy can be applied in various ways and preserves pancreatic β-cells, which optimizes insulin secretion levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [116] Srinivasan, 2021, Gene therapy - can it cure type 1 diabetes, Cureus source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Phytomedicine is a cost-effective alternative to synthetic medications for treating DM, offering fewer side effects, longer-lasting benefits, and improved patient compliance.

    “Phytomedicine is a cost-effective alternative to synthetic medications for treating DM, offering fewer side effects, longer-lasting benefits, and improved patient compliance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [128] Kumar, 2021, Herbal medicines for diabetes management and its secondary complications, Curr Diabetes Rev source
    • cites [129] Patel, 2012, An overview on antidiabetic medicinal plants having insulin mimetic property, Asian Pac J Trop BioMed source

      The Introduction describes medicinal plants as potential alternative antidiabetic treatments with effects it calls safe, and the Discussion reports hypoglycaemic activity. The copy does not establish that phytomedicine costs less than synthetic medication, has longer-lasting benefits, or improves patient compliance. The Discussion also cautions that some plant materials are unsafe and require toxicity studies. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [130] Tegegne, 2024, Validation of blood glucose and lipid-lowering effect of solvent fractions of the Crinum abyssinicum shoot tips in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice, Glob Adv Integr Med Health source

      The Introduction (page not available in our copy) describes herbal therapy as a treatment for diabetes and says medicinal herbs can have little toxicity or side effects. It does not establish that phytomedicine is more cost-effective than synthetic medications, provides longer-lasting benefits, or improves patient compliance. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: The use of dietary supplements in people with diabetes continues to be a topic of debate, largely due to the scarcity of well-designed clinical trials.
    • Rests on an assumption: Many existing studies are inconclusive because of small sample sizes, differences in participant characteristics, variations in supplement formulations and dosages, and inconsistent research durations and outcomes.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Monoclonal antibodies have been shown to be clinically safe and to have varying degrees of efficacy in modulating autoimmunity, including T1D.

    “One tactic to target immune cell populations that cause autoimmune-driven pathology is the use of monoclonal antibodies, which have been shown to be clinically safe and to have varying degrees of efficacy in modulating autoimmunity, including T1D (126).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126] Ke, 2020, Evolving antibody therapies for the treatment of type 1 diabetes, Front Immunol source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Flavonoids are part of the class of nutraceuticals that have been demonstrated to improve insulin sensitivity, manage hyperglycemia in diabetics, and govern metabolism.

    “Flavonoids are part of the class of nutraceuticals that have been demonstrated to improve insulin sensitivity, manage hyperglycemia in diabetics, and govern metabolism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [132] Kumar, 2023, Major phytochemicals: Recent advances in health benefits and extraction method, Molecules source

      Section 3.2 (Polyphenols; page not provided) identifies flavonoids as phytochemicals and says they have been found beneficial in diabetes. It does not specify improved insulin sensitivity, management of hyperglycemia in people with diabetes, or regulation of metabolism. Section 3.6 attributes improved insulin sensitivity to dietary fiber, not flavonoids. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [133] Mabena, 2024, Impact of nutraceuticals on type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus-induced micro- and macrovasculopathies, Appl Sci source
    • cites [134] Tran, 2020, Bioactive compounds in anti-diabetic plants: from herbal medicine to modern drug discovery, Biol (Basel) source

      Section 2, “Management of Diabetes Mellitus” (page unavailable), lists flavonoids among plant components with antidiabetic activity. Section 3.4 reports a blood-glucose-lowering effect associated with flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in hyperglycemic rats. The cited paper does not establish that flavonoids as a nutraceutical class improve insulin sensitivity, manage hyperglycemia in people with diabetes, or govern metabolism. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Transplantation of allogenic MSC-derived insulin-producing cells results in a mild allogeneic response that does not affect the cells' ability to function.

    “Empirical data has demonstrated that the transplantation of allogenic MSC-derived insulin-producing cells results in a mild allogeneic response that does not affect the cells’ ability to function.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [121] Du, 2022, Engineering islets from stem cells: The optimal solution for the treatment of diabetes, Front Immunol source

      The ‘MSCs and Islet Co-transplantation for Islet Function Protection’ section (page unavailable) discusses MSCs transplanted alongside islets, not allogeneic transplantation of MSC-derived insulin-producing cells. A search for MSC-derived insulin-producing cells and a mild allogeneic response found no passage assessing whether such a response leaves those cells functional. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Asperentin B is a novel inhibitor of PTPase-1B and a vital alternative in T2DM therapy.

    “Asperentin B is a novel inhibitor of PTPase-1B and a vital alternative in T2DM therapy (83).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [83] DeFronzo, 2014, Novel agents for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Spectr source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    DPP-4 inhibitors are employed either as add-on drug therapy when metformin or sulfonylurea is inadequate or as monotherapy in individuals who should not be taking those medications or who are intolerant to them.

    “DPP-4 inhibitors are employed either as an add-on drug therapy when metformin (a biguanide), or sulfonylurea is inadequate or as monotherapy in individuals who should not be taking those medications or who are intolerant to them (70).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Lee, 2014, Anti-diabetic actions of glucagon-like peptide-1 on pancreatic beta-cells, Metabolism source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Clinical tests of CS-917 in individuals with T2DM showed a good safety profile and clinically significant decreases in fasting glucose levels.

    “Clinical tests of CS-917 conducted later on in individuals with T2DM showed a good safety profile and clinically significant decreases in fasting glucose levels.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [114] Van Poelje, 2011, Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase inhibitors for reducing excessive endogenous glucose production in type 2 diabetes, Handb Exp Pharmacol source
    • cites [115] Kaur, 2017, Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase inhibitors: A new valid approach for management of type 2 diabetes mellitus, Eur J Med Chem source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Current treatments for both T1DM and T2DM focus on lowering blood glucose levels and easing the symptoms of associated problems.

    “Besides, the current treatments for both T1DM and T2DM focus on lowering blood glucose levels and easing the symptoms of any associated problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    DM still has no known cure, despite being one of the earliest disorders in human history to be recognized.

    “DM still has no known cure, despite being one of the earliest disorders in human history to be recognized.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: None of the developed drugs fully address the medical requirements of patients with diabetes.
    • Rests on an assumption: Diabetes is becoming more common and has few therapeutic targets.
    • Rests on an assumption: Current treatment plans for DM just slow down the disease's progression instead of reversing diabetes.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Vitamin C and Vitamin E, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, PCSK9 inhibitors, PTPase-1B inhibitors, GIP receptor and GLP-1 receptor agonist, amylin analogues, inorganic nitrate/nitrite, probiotics, gene therapy, stem cell immunotherapy, FBPase inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies, and targeting GABA, phytomedicine, are novel and emerging strategies gaining attention for comprehensive and可靠?

    “Vitamin C and Vitamin E, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin-9 inhibitors, protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B inhibitors, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, amylin analogues, inorganic nitrate/nitrite, probiotics, gene therapy, stem cell immunotherapy, fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase inhibitors, m”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Current interventions have not satisfied patient medical needs due to their low efficacy (inability to cure), intolerability, potential for drug interactions, and a challenge for ongoing monitoring.

    “However, these interventions have not satisfied patient medical needs due to their low efficacy (inability to cure), intolerability, potential for drug interactions, and a challenge for ongoing monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: None of the developed drugs fully address the medical requirements of patients with diabetes.
    • Rests on an assumption: Diabetes is becoming more common and has few therapeutic targets.
    • Rests on an assumption: Current treatment plans for DM just slow down the disease's progression instead of reversing diabetes.
34 of 34

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Treatment and management of diabetes mellitus is a universal health problem and successful treatment is yet to be discovered.

    “Treatment and management of DM is a universal health problem and successful treatment is yet to be discovered.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Food intake and exercise are the two main determinants of energy balance and are the cornerstones of diabetes mellitus management.

    “Food intake and exercise are the two main determinants of energy balance and are the cornerstones of DM management.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Nutrition therapy combined with other elements of diabetes management can lower HbA1c by 1-2% and enhance clinical and metabolic results.

    “When combined with other elements of diabetes management, nutrition therapy can lower HbA1C by 1-2% and enhance clinical and metabolic results.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    None of the developed drugs fully address the medical requirements of patients with diabetes.

    “Despite the development of many well-known and recently created drugs, none of them are yet able to fully address the medical requirements of patients with diabetes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Diabetes is becoming more common and has few therapeutic targets.

    “This is because diabetes is becoming more common and has few therapeutic targets.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Current treatment plans for DM just slow down the disease's progression instead of reversing diabetes.

    “Instead of reversing diabetes, the current treatment plans for DM just slow down the disease’s progression.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is little to no worldwide focus on the effective management of both T1DM and T2DM.

    “keeping in mind that there is little to no worldwide focus on the effective management of both T1DM and T2DM.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    None of the drugs on the market today directly lowers gluconeogenesis.

    “However, none of the drugs on the market today even directly lowers gluconeogenesis.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    T2DM is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular illnesses and frequently occurs before cardiovascular illnesses.

    “T2DM is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular illnesses, thus there is a close relationship between the two conditions. Furthermore, T2DM frequently occurs before cardiovascular illnesses do.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The use of dietary supplements in people with diabetes continues to be a topic of debate, largely due to the scarcity of well-designed clinical trials.

    “The use of dietary supplements in people with diabetes continues to be a topic of debate, largely due to the scarcity of well-designed clinical trials.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many existing studies are inconclusive because of small sample sizes, differences in participant characteristics, variations in supplement formulations and dosages, and inconsistent research durations and outcomes.

    “Many existing studies are inconclusive, often because of small sample sizes, differences in participant characteristics, variations in supplement formulations and dosages, and inconsistent research durations and outcomes.”
11 of 11

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conflicting advice on alcohol during diabetes treatment

    Minor

    The paper includes moderate alcohol consumption in a treatment plan for patients with diabetes, but later says patients should not consume alcohol while under treatment.

  • TZDs called the only insulin-resistance treatment despite another insulin sensitizer

    Minor

    The paper says no pharmacologic treatments other than TZDs particularly treat insulin resistance, but later calls bromocriptine a postprandial insulin sensitizer used for T2DM.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 150 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Wherrett, 2018, Diabetes Canada clinical practice guidelines expert committee: diabetes Canada 2018 clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada, Can J Diabetes, 42, S1
  2. Collins, 2024, Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists. [Updated 2024 Feb 29]

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Tegegne, B. A., Adugna, A., Yenet, A., Yihunie Belay, W., Yibeltal, Y., Dagne, A., Hibstu Teffera, Z., Amare, G. A., Abebaw, D., Tewabe, H., Abebe, R. B., & Zeleke, T. K.
Affiliations
  • Debre Markos University (ET)
  • University of Gondar (ET)
Corresponding author
Tegegne, Bantayehu Addis
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Endocrinology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2024-10-18
Volume
15
Pages
1440456-1440456
ISSN
1664-2392 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fendo.2024.1440456
PMC
PMC11527681
OpenAlex
W4403553049
Semantic Scholar
10a3416771deaceb3a1b3f68f067d6b684f137ca
Cited by
61
References
150
Citations by year
2026: 46 · 2025: 15
FWCI
3.59
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Endocrinology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Treatment and Management
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
Keywords
type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, diabetes management, lifestyle modification, antidiabetic drugs, novel therapeutic targets, diabetes pathophysiology, diabetes risk factors, diabetes complications, diabetes diagnosis
MeSH terms
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Humans, Hypoglycemic Agents, Life Style, Disease Management

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-29.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-29.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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