Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation

In the paper

“Their subjective ratings of mood or emotion were not changed at all by exposures to subliminal and backward-masked emotional faces, whether happy or angry (Winkielman et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Winkielman et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“Yet subliminal exposure to happy faces elicited a positive affective reaction that remained unconscious, but which could be revealed by presenting thirsty participants with a relevant incentive: a pitcher of fruit beverage.”

In the paper

“Incentive salience as ‘wanting’ is separable also from pleasure ‘liking’ for the same reward, which has important implications for several human clinical disorders.”

In the paper

“Further, in ordinary adults under certain circumstances, subliminally brief visual flashes of happy or angry facial expressions can elicit unconscious affective reactions, either positive or negative, which produced no change in subjective mood reports but nonetheless controlled motivated behavior some minutes afterward (Winkielman et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Winkielman et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“For example, cocaine addicts under some conditions will objectively work to take cocaine infusions, and choose them over saline infusions, even when the cocaine dose is too low to produce any subjective drug feelings of pleasure or arousal (Fischman and Foltin, 1992).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fischman and Foltin, 1992

In the paper

“But subliminal expressions do induce a valenced affective reaction in human viewers: positive to smiling faces and negative to angry faces (Zajonc, 1980).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zajonc, 1980 source

In the paper

“By comparison, ‘liking’ is mediated by a smaller and relatively fragile set of ‘hedonic hotspots,’ which are distributed across the brain but act as an integrated network.”

In the paper

“In passing, it is important that these unconscious affects were evident only if participants were already thirsty (Winkielman et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Winkielman et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“Further, even complete removal of nearly all dopamine by neurochemical brain lesions left rats’ sweetness ‘liking’ completely normal and unimpaired, despite eliminating all ‘wanting’ to eat (Berridge et al., 1989).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge et al., 1989 source

In the paper

“Evidence from our studies of brain mechanisms for food reward in rats forced us to change our minds.”

In the paper

“Using this schematic measure of ‘liking’ versus ‘disgust,’ we found that drug disruption of dopamine failed to reduce facial ‘liking’ reactions to sweetness, contrary to our anhedonia-based prediction (Treit and Berridge, 1990).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Treit and Berridge, 1990

In the paper

“In Pavlovian-Instrumental transfer (PIT; right), a Pavlovian reward CS+ cue (sound) elicits small peaks of ‘wanting’ during extinction test (bottom).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pecina and Berridge, 2013 source

In the paper

“A Pavlovian cue lever for disgusting Dead Sea saltiness becomes negatively repulsive during learning (left).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Robinson and Berridge, 2013

In the paper

“But in a novel salt-appetite state, the cue becomes immediately ‘wanted’ and attractive, by activating mesocorticolimbic circuitry for incentive salience (Robinson and Berridge, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Robinson and Berridge, 2013

In the paper

“Only a network of small ‘hedonic hotspots’ is able to amplify ‘liking’ reactions to a sensory pleasure, such as sweetness.”

In the paper

“Instead, its intense peaks of ‘wanting’ to obtain a reward come and go during the session together as reward cues are presented and withdrawn (Wyvell and Berridge, 2000; Pecina and Berridge, 2013; Figure 2).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wyvell and Berridge, 2000 source
• Not checked yetcites Pecina and Berridge, 2013 source

In the paper

“For example, an hour of continuously high levels of brain dopamine, produced in a rat after microinjection of amphetamine in nucleus accumbens, does not actually cause continuously high ‘wanting’ motivation.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wyvell and Berridge, 2000 source
• Not checked yetcites Pecina and Berridge, 2013 source

In the paper

“Now its response to the metal CS is immediately changed, and the lever CS becomes suddenly ‘wanted,’ even though it has so far only tasted actual salt infusions as ‘disgusting’ (Robinson and Berridge, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Robinson and Berridge, 2013

In the paper

“Further, if a person gently attempts to pick up a rat when in this accumbens-induced ‘fearful’ state, the rat may even bite the newly-offensive hand, or scramble frantically in attempt to escape, even if the same rat is normally tame and friendly at all other times (Reynolds and Berridge, 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source

In the paper

“However, positive versus negative valence generated by glutamate antagonist microinjections depend on slightly different types of dopamine neuronal receptors.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“For example, a rat after a posterior microinjection may respond to the sight of people in the room with anti-predator reactions that rodents ordinarily emit toward threats, such as when a mother ground squirrel kicks sand with her forepaws toward an rattlesnake that approaches her pups in a burrow (Coss and Owings, 1978).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Coss and Owings, 1978
• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source

In the paper

“For example, a bright and noisy environment flips sites in the front-middle of nucleus accumbens that normally generate ‘wanting’ into instead generating ‘fear,’ reversing from positive valence to negative valence.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source

In the paper

“Tapping keys in the posterior nucleus accumbens shell with the same drug microinjection oppositely elicits strong active ‘fear’ reactions.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“Conversely, a soothing dark and quiet environment flips many otherwise negative ‘fear’-generating sites in the middle-posterior of nucleus accumbens into generating positive ‘wanting’ (Reynolds and Berridge, 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source

In the paper

“Simultaneously blocking all dopamine receptors at the microinjection site is functionally equivalent to removing the glutamate-blocking drug contents from the microinjection: no intense motivations are generated at all (Richard and Berridge, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“Our studies in rats have further revealed that the only brain site where small lesions are able to cause sweetness to become perceived as nasty, and to elicit excessive ‘disgust’ reactions, is the hedonic hotspot of ventral pallidum, a striatal target which receives dense nucleus accumbens projections (Ho and Berridge, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ho and Berridge, 2014

In the paper

“Yet our animal brain-manipulation studies show one interesting overlap in neural generators for intense ‘disgust’ and ‘fear’ reactions in nucleus accumbens, involving a shift in neural mode of function at the same brain location.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Faure et al., 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Ho and Berridge, 2014

In the paper

“This ‘disgust-plus-fear’ mode is produced when the posterior shell zone receives microinjections of a drug that activates GABA receptors, such as muscimol (Faure et al., 2010; Ho and Berridge, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Faure et al., 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Ho and Berridge, 2014

In the paper

“In this GABA-related mode, the normally ‘liked’ taste of sucrose instead elicits ‘disgust’ gapes and headshakes from rats, as though the taste were bitter quinine.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Faure et al., 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Ho and Berridge, 2014

In the paper

“That objection has merit, in the sense that we do lack proof and scientific certainty about conscious feelings of animals and infants.”

In the paper

“Conversely, lack of incentive salience may cause motivational forms of anhedonia in depression or schizophrenia, whereas a negatively-valenced form of ‘fearful salience’ may contribute to paranoia.”

In the paper

“It is mere conjecture to say that only other humans have the crucial brain similarity needed for consciousness but that animals do not.”

In the paper

“Studies of implicit prejudice similarly suggest that introspective verbal reports may miss some important emotional reactions (Greenwald and Banaji, 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Greenwald and Banaji, 2017

In the paper

“Considerable experimental evidence indicates that some features of human emotion and motivation cannot actually be accessed well via introspection or described in subjective reports (Nisbett and Wilson, 1978; Wilson and Schooler, 1991; Schwarz, 1999; Dijksterhuis et al., 2006; Schooler and Mauss, 2010; Greenwald and Banaji, 2017; Torre and Lieberman, 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nisbett and Wilson, 1978 source
• Not checked yetcites Wilson and Schooler, 1991 source
• Not checked yetcites Schwarz, 1999 source

In the paper

“In other words, introspective reports can be very far from ‘gold standard’ evidence about underlying emotional processes.”

In the paper

“What is subjectively reported may only be a constructed explanation of what we think we should feel or would like to feel, rather than an accurate readout of underlying emotional reactions.”

In the paper

“We also lack proof and scientific certainty about the subjective experience of every other human adult besides ourselves.”

In the paper

“Certainty is not the form of knowledge we have about subjective experience in any other mind than our own (Nagel, 1974).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nagel, 1974 source

In the paper

“The difference has important implications for understanding normal psychological processes and for understanding psychological disorders.”

In the paper

“Incentive salience as ‘wanting’ is separable also from pleasure ‘liking’ for the same reward, which has important implications for several human clinical disorders.”

In the paper

“Implicit prejudices can only be revealed by objective measures, such as the emotional Stroop test of reaction time to affective mismatch, sometimes to the surprise and dismay of the person who is subjectively unprejudiced.”

In the paper

“Motivation-as-drive concepts were largely replaced by motivation-as-incentive concepts, yet aversive drive concepts still occasionally surface in reward neuroscience today.”

In the paper

“Evidence is offered also that studies of emotion in animals can give new insights into human emotions.”

In the paper

“Thinking too much and trying to verbally report feelings can distort emotional reactions.”

In the paper

“Neural sensitization can happen in many of the same brain dopamine-related neurons that undergo drug tolerance because the two changes proceed through parallel chains of molecular events inside neurons, almost like ships passing in the night.”

In the paper

“However, those dopamine suppressions did reduce people’s subjective reports of wanting to consume more of the drug or food reward.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brauer and De Wit, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Leyton, 2010
• Not checked yetcites Sienkiewicz-Jarosz et al., 2013 source

In the paper

“addictive drugs – when taken repeatedly in binge-like fashion by susceptible individuals – induce long-lasting hyper-reactivity in mesolimbic dopamine-related systems, known as neural sensitization (Robinson and Berridge, 1993; Berridge and Robinson, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Robinson and Berridge, 1993
• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“But unlike tolerance and withdrawal, neural sensitization doesn’t go away when the individual stops taking drugs.”

In the paper

“However, gradually a number of human studies began to emerge around 2000 that confirmed our dopamine-based liking/wanting distinction also applied to people’s feelings of pleasure produced by cocaine, heroin, and food reward.”

In the paper

“unless we were accurately tapping in all along to ‘liking’ versus ‘wanting’ processes shared by animals and humans, which made it not a guess at all.”

In the paper

“In short, talking about emotions is often not a reliable window or ‘gold standard’ source of evidence into actual underlying emotions, even when verbal declarations of emotion are available.”

In the paper

“It is an unfounded leap to conclude instead it means that rats are incapable of fear.”

In the paper

“This neural sensitization creates dopamine hyper-reactivity to drugs and their cues in sensitized individuals.”

In the paper

“The distinction has also turned out to have applications to human affective disorders, ranging from addiction to schizophrenia, depression and Parkinson’s disease.”

In the paper

“In the short run, tolerance and withdrawal often win and mask sensitization – as long as drugs continue to be taken.”

In the paper

“In animals as well as humans, psychologists can objectively map the shape of emotional/motivational processes from the outside, by finding the lawful rules that govern their operation in action, even when we don’t know what is subjectively felt on the inside (Nagel, 1974).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nagel, 1974 source

In the paper

“Psychologically, thirst combined with unconscious affective reactions were able to modulate the incentive salience of the drink in a valenced up-or-down fashion– making it more ‘wanted’ after happy faces, and less ‘wanted’ than usual after angry faces.”

In the paper

“Finally, regarding language as a gold standard for emotion, talking about feelings evoked by sunsets is not proof even of the emotions that are declared.”

In the paper

“Otherwise, it would be impossible to make the jump from discoveries about animal affective processes, to human affective processes or to human clinical disorders of addiction, depression, schizophrenia, etc.”

In the paper

“Instead it was a schematic inference about hedonic and motivation mechanisms of reward gained from animals, with direct applications to human psychology and clinical affective disorders.”

In the paper

“In humans too, as already mentioned talking about emotions may cognitively distort underlying processes based on what people think their emotions should be, rather than accurately report emotional content (Wilson and Schooler, 1991; Dijksterhuis et al., 2006; Schooler and Mauss, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wilson and Schooler, 1991 source
• Not checked yetcites Dijksterhuis et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Schooler and Mauss, 2010

In the paper

“For example, giving ordinary people the medication L-DOPA, which produces surges in brain dopamine levels, does not increase their subjective ratings of pleasure feelings (Liggins et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Liggins et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“Similarly, it is now increasingly clear that increases of human dopamine do not reliably cause enhancement of subjective ratings of pleasure (although many rewards do induce dopamine release as a consequence and correlate, but not the cause, of pleasure) (Leyton et al., 2002; Evans et al., 2006; Liggins et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leyton et al., 2002 source
• Not checked yetcites Evans et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Liggins et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“Of course, subliminally seeing emotional facial expressions is not equivalent to inducing the corresponding full emotion (Adolphs et al., 2005; Anderson et al., 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Adolphs et al., 2005 source
• Not checked yetcites Anderson et al., 2006 source

In the paper

“Today the distinction between ‘liking’ and ‘wanting’ now rests on 30 years of results in animal studies, and 15 years of confirmatory findings in humans.”

In the paper

“Defining affect or emotion solely as subjective feelings misses something important.”

In the paper

“This interaction between percept and state in controlling motivational value follows what I call Bindra-Toates rules of incentive salience, which will be described below.”

In the paper

“DDS symptoms are perhaps the most striking human confirmation of the hypothesis that mesolimbic dopamine activation can cause addictive ‘wanting,’ which originated from animal studies.”

In the paper

“This is called ‘dopamine dysregulation syndrome’ or DDS, and happens in 15% or more of Parkinson’s patients who are given newer ‘direct agonist’ medications that directly stimulate their brain dopamine D2/D3 receptors, especially at high doses.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites O’Sullivan et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“and on grounds that addictions persist after withdrawal syndromes go away (Berridge and Robinson, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“The finding that the same electrode was both rewarding (in the sense of being sought after) and motivating confounded expectations based on drive theories.”

In the paper

“However, the brain’s motivation circuitry may be mostly oriented toward incentive processes, even for hunger, thirst, and the other biological motivations that drive reduction theory originally was invented to explain.”

In the paper

“This sensitized brain reaction evoked by addictive cues should produce stronger cue-triggered psychological surges of ‘wanting’ than faced by other non-sensitized individuals.”

In the paper

“Those addictive urges would be further amplified when the cues were encountered during stress, emotional excitement, intoxication or other states that prime the reactivity of mesolimbic systems.”

In the paper

“The implication for human addiction is that sensitized drug addicts could have intense cue-triggered ‘wanting’ for their drugs, especially when encountering drug cues in emotionally aroused states, even if their ‘liking’ for drugs declined (Robinson and Berridge, 1993; Berridge and Robinson, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Robinson and Berridge, 1993
• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“For example, from 1900 to the 1970s, much of the thinking about reward motivation in psychology and neuroscience was dominated by two concepts: drive and drive reduction (Hull, 1951; Miller, 1971).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hull, 1951
• Not checked yetcites Miller, 1971

In the paper

“These drugs act as artificial dopamine on those receptors, skipping over the need for natural dopamine (older L-Dopa medication promoted natural dopamine synthesis, but did not directly stimulate receptors) (O’Sullivan et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites O’Sullivan et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“This makes a pure drive reduction theory of AgRP hunger less plausible, similar as to what happened for hypothalamic reward electrodes discussed below.”

In the paper

“This could produce extra-strong ‘wants’ in behavioral addictions that sometimes surprise even the addict by their intensity.”

In the paper

“Perhaps the single most compelling piece of evidence that moved motivation theory away from negative drive theories to positive incentive theories of motivation came from 1960s studies of reward and hunger motivation caused by brain electrode stimulation – mostly at sites in the lateral hypothalamus that indirectly also activated mesolimbic dopamine systems (Olds and Milner, 1954; Valenstein et al”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Olds and Milner, 1954 source
• Not checked yetcites Valenstein et al., 1970 source
• Not checked yetcites Miller, 1971

In the paper

“New dopamine-stimulating medications have produced addictive-like motivations in people who were previously least likely to ever become addicts.”

In the paper

“The nucleus accumbens can generate either incentive salience or fearful salience.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge (2008) source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge (2011)

In the paper

“Not only is drive a weak motivator by itself, but drive reduction turns out to be surprisingly impotent as a reward by itself.”

In the paper

“In the brain of a person, a hotspot would be expected to be about a cubic centimeter in volume, extrapolating from the size difference between whole brains.”

In the paper

“The relative fragility of ‘liking’ circuitry, compared to the robustness of ‘wanting’ circuitry, may be one reason why intense pleasures are fewer and farther between in life than intense desires.”

In the paper

“Reduction of a hunger or thirst drive is usually not enough to reinforce behavior, unless an incentive stimulus is also involved.”

In the paper

“For example, rats that can deliver nutrients directly to their stomach via feeding through a gastric fistula in some studies fail to bar press for the nutrients at all (Holman, 1969).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Holman, 1969 source

In the paper

“The fact that an electrode that caused eating behavior (or drinking, or sex, etc.) was also a reward electrode meant that the reward could not be due to drive reduction.”

In the paper

“Not only is drive a weak motivator by itself, but drive reduction turns out to be surprisingly impotent as a reward by itself.”

In the paper

“Since the rewarding electrode actually increased the apparent drive to eat, reward needed to be understood as a phenomenon that was independent from drive reduction.”

In the paper

“Many individual sites can be flipped back and forth between generating ‘wanting’ and ‘fear’ by changes in environmental ambience, as described in text.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge (2008) source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge (2011)

In the paper

“All these observations indicate that the role of physiological ‘drive states’ is really to amplify the incentive value of their relevant incentive targets, and magnify their reward properties, rather than act as independent drives (Toates, 1986; Berridge, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986
• Not checked yetcites Berridge, 2012 source

In the paper

“Other evidence has indicated similarly that the aversiveness of drives does not actually motivate much behavior, even for hunger and thirst.”

In the paper

“Even studies that succeeded in getting rats to work for intra-gastric delivery of nutrients reported only weak effects: such rats bar press to earn only about 30% of their normal intake of calories (Nicolaidis and Rowland, 1975).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nicolaidis and Rowland, 1975

In the paper

“Microinjections of the same glutamate-blocking drug (DNQX) elicit opposite motivations at different sites.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge (2008) source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge (2011)

In the paper

“Nor is the reduction of an aversive drive actually the chief target of those motivations.”

In the paper

“However, if that extra pairing with food consumption while hungry is given, then later the Pavlovian food cue can evoke conditioned eating even if encountered when the rat is no longer hungry (Weingarten, 1983; Holland et al., 2002; Petrovich, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Weingarten, 1983 source
• Not checked yetcites Holland et al., 2002 source
• Not checked yetcites Petrovich, 2011 source

In the paper

“The paradox was eventually solved by incentive motivation theory described below.”

In the paper

“Unanimous activation of multiple hotspots together appears required in order to amplify sensory pleasures.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Smith and Berridge, 2007
• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015 source

In the paper

“Pavlovian cues for hunger fail to elicit ingestive behaviors, that is, unless those cues were additionally paired with the opportunity to eat while hungry, or the opportunity to drink while thirsty.”

In the paper

“Hunger, thirst, and other motivation states primarily act to enhance the incentive value of their particular reward, increasing ‘wanting’ and ‘liking’ for foods, or for water, and so on, rather than acting primarily as aversive goads (Toates, 1986; Cabanac, 1992; Dickinson and Balleine, 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986
• Not checked yetcites Cabanac, 1992 source
• Not checked yetcites Dickinson and Balleine, 2002

In the paper

“Hedonic hotspots are anatomically small pleasure-generating islands of brain tissue, tucked within larger limbic structures, such as nucleus accumbens and limbic cortex (Figures 2, 3).”

In the paper

“The distributed hotspots appear to act together as a functionally interconnected network, so that stimulating one hotspot with a drug microinjection causes other hotspots to be recruited into neurobiological activation too (Smith and Berridge, 2007; Castro and Berridge, 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Smith and Berridge, 2007
• Not checked yetcites Castro and Berridge, 2017

In the paper

“Dalbir Bindra posited in 1970s that Pavlovian incentive cues or conditioned stimuli (CS), which predict pleasant reward as unconditioned stimuli (UCS), take on some of the motivation features of their associated UCS reward (food, drink, sex, drugs, etc.).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bindra, 1978 source

In the paper

“A cognitively rational rat or person, would be guided by memories of previous disgusting saltiness, and would need to retaste the saltiness in newly ‘liked’ status, in order to update goal values as positive required to seek the salt or its cue (Dickinson and Balleine, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Dickinson and Balleine, 2010

In the paper

“Incentive salience follows psychological rules described originally by a useful incentive motivation framework posited successively by the psychologists Dalbir Bindra and Frederick Toates (Bindra, 1978; Toates, 1986).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bindra, 1978 source
• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986

In the paper

“if unanimity is prevented (by simultaneously suppressing one hotspot while stimulating another) the ‘liking’ enhancement ordinarily produced by the stimulation will be prevented.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Smith and Berridge, 2007
• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015 source

In the paper

“However, once a person encounters salt or its Pavlovian cues in the deficient state, incentive salience kicks in and the appetite can become intense and focused into a desire to consume handfuls of salt (Wilkins and Richter, 1940).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wilkins and Richter, 1940

In the paper

“The flexibility of such suddenly enabled motivation in seeking targets overlaps with psychological concepts of general motivational engagement (Higgins, 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Higgins, 2006 source

In the paper

“Thus incentive salience may proactively facilitate action and engagement (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Carver, 2009; Kruglanski et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ryan and Deci, 2000 source
• Not checked yetcites Carver, 2009 source
• Not checked yetcites Kruglanski et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“This interaction can be very powerful, able even to reverse the affective valence of a learned cue.”

In the paper

“In people, also, strength of mesolimbic incentive salience has also been linked to personality traits of impulsiveness and sensation-seeking (e.g., Gray’s BAS [behavioral activation system]) (Gray et al., 1999; Beaver et al., 2008; Hickey and Peelen, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gray et al., 1999 source
• Not checked yetcites Beaver et al., 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Hickey and Peelen, 2015

In the paper

“Such reversals in the incentive salience of cues is a powerful confirmation that mesocorticolimbic incentive salience mechanisms obey Bindra-Toatesian rules.”

In the paper

“Humans don’t necessarily require physical reward cues – vivid imagery about the reward may be enough to trigger limbic brain activations of incentive salience in people that would require cues in animals (May et al., 2004; Kochel et al., 2011; Jauregui-Lobera et al., 2012; Miyapuram et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites May et al., 2004 source
• Not checked yetcites Kochel et al., 2011 source
• Not checked yetcites Jauregui-Lobera et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“interaction with world targets can also be seen in people who suddenly have their mesolimbic dopamine systems artificially activated for the first time, such as by a newly-implanted brain stimulation electrode.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herzog et al., 2003 source
• Not checked yetcites Schlaepfer et al., 2008 source

In the paper

“By contrast, incentive salience has distinct signature features: often being cue-triggered as a temporary peak of desire to obtain or consume an associated reward (Berridge, 2001, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge, 2001
• Not checked yetcites Berridge, 2012 source

In the paper

“Both people and rats can behave ‘rationally’ in new salt appetites – at least, if guiding salt-related cues are absent.”

In the paper

“In this way, Pavlovian cue-triggered incentive salience can sometimes be smarter than a cognitive system: a cognitive system needs to act upon past knowledge of goal values that it has gained from experience (Dayan and Berridge, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Dayan and Berridge, 2014 source

In the paper

“Conversely, other drugs can reduce the motivating power of reward cues, without disrupting their ability to convey learned information (Cogan et al., 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Cogan et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“Children found it much harder to wait if any marshmallows were actually present to be seen and perhaps smelled (Mischel et al., 1989).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mischel et al., 1989 source

In the paper

“This cue-state interaction allows the CS to elicit intense incentive salience.”

In the paper

“In animals, both ‘disgust’ and ‘fear’ reactions could be called negatively-valenced defensive reactions by LeDoux’s recent terminology based on evolved functions (LeDoux J.E., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites LeDoux J.E., 2015

In the paper

“The active form of ‘fearful’ reaction produced by this nucleus accumbens dopamine interaction contrasts to the more passive freezing reactions elicited by a threatening Pavlovian cue best known to depend on amygdala circuitry (LeDoux, 1996).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites LeDoux, 1996

In the paper

“Original sensory taste disgust may have been extended in human evolution to include also conceptual forms of disgust, such as in perceived physical contaminations (e.g., by germs, mutilation or putrefaction), or moral contaminations (e.g., particular acts of violence or sex or prejudice) (Rozin et al., 2008; Chapman et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rozin et al., 2008
• Not checked yetcites Chapman et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“Sensitized hyper-reactivity can be further amplified to even higher levels at certain moments by states of stress (whether unpleasant or celebrational), emotional excitement – or by taking a hit of drug again – creating a special window of heightened vulnerability to relapse.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“Indeed, children who successfully waited often employed strategies such as turning away from the marshmallow, thinking of the visible marshmallow as merely a photograph, or distracting themselves by imagining instead the taste of salty pretzels to redirect ‘wanting’ toward that different food.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mischel et al., 1989 source

In the paper

“The active ‘fearful’ reactions are revealed by manipulations of the nucleus accumbens in rats (Reynolds and Berridge, 2008; Richard and Berridge, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“although dopamine dysfunction is probably not the mechanism of the delusions themselves) (Howes and Kapur, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Howes and Kapur, 2009 source

In the paper

“In schizophrenic patients, a similar negatively-valenced role of dopamine in nucleus accumbens has been suggested to produce motivational paranoia that can accompany delusions of persecution (Howes and Kapur, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Howes and Kapur, 2009 source

In the paper

“The nucleus accumbens’ shell compartment contains a desire-dread valence keyboard, organized from front to back (Figure 3): the keyboard is demonstrated by inhibitory microinjections of drugs that are either glutamate AMPA antagonists or GABA agonists.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“The valence of sites in the nucleus accumbens keyboard is not determined solely by neuroanatomy.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source

In the paper

“Valence of many sites can be partly or wholly retuned by psychological factors such as external ambience (Reynolds and Berridge, 2008), reflecting appraisal processes similar to human social psychology (Schachter and Singer, 1962; Higgins, 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Schachter and Singer, 1962 source
• Not checked yetcites Higgins, 2006 source

In the paper

“Incentive salience may additionally have a surprising and affectively-opposite cousin, in the form of negatively-valenced fearful salience.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“The physical stimulus of a marshmallow in the present, unavoidably triggering vivid thoughts of its taste and what it would feel like to eat it, is a potent temptation for a child, even more than its imagination in the future.”

In the paper

“That is, reward ‘wanting’ and an active form of ‘fear’ reaction share overlapping mesolimbic dopamine and nucleus accumbens mechanisms of motivational salience despite being psychological opposites (Reynolds and Berridge, 2008; Richard and Berridge, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“Psychologically, both forms of motivational salience make their external stimulus triggers become attention-riveting and motivationally meaningful (Higgins, 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Higgins, 2006 source

In the paper

“Disgust seems quite a different psychological emotion from fear (Rozin et al., 2008; Chapman and Anderson, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rozin et al., 2008
• Not checked yetcites Chapman and Anderson, 2012

In the paper

“We’ve studied core ‘disgust’ reactions such as gapes and headshakes that are naturally elicited by bitter tastes in rats (Steiner et al., 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Steiner et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“Thus conceivably this incremental change in neural inhibitory signal produces a qualitative change in psychological emotion that adds a categorically new ‘disgust’ reaction to ‘fear’ reactions.”

In the paper

“Just as when the original dopamine-based discovery that ‘wanting’ versus ‘liking’ mechanisms were different in rats pointed the way to teasing apart subjective wanting and liking feelings in humans, conclusions first gained from objective affective reactions in animals can sometimes give us new and important insights into human emotions.”

In the paper

“Human neuroimaging studies of disgust have often implicated the insula in cortex and subcortical striatal circuitry (which can include the nucleus accumbens) (Calder et al., 2007; Chapman and Anderson, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Calder et al., 2007 source
• Not checked yetcites Chapman and Anderson, 2012