Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation

In the paper

“Valence was evident in that subliminal viewing of angry faces had an opposite negative-valenced impact on the same thirsty participants: they poured less, drank less, and were willing to pay less than after seeing only neutral facial expressions – again without any intervening change in their subjective ratings of emotional mood (Berridge and Winkielman, 2003; Winkielman et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Winkielman, 2003
• Not checked yetcites Winkielman et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“Those happy-exposed participants poured more drink, drank more of what they poured, and were willing to pay a much higher monetary price for the drink offered than after viewing emotionally-neutral faces.”

In the paper

“But for the first decade of this hypothesis, the schematic understanding from animal evidence was all we had, based on objective affective reactions, which stood alone and pointed the way.”

In the paper

“The distinction between ‘wanting’ and ‘liking’ initially came as a surprise to me and to my colleagues. We had believed until the late 1980s that the two concepts necessarily went together, as two semantic sides of the same psychological coin.”

In the paper

“Robust and large mesocorticolimbic circuitry can generate intense ‘wanting’ (green), including both mesolimbic dopamine projections and many of its target structures.”

In the paper

“Conversely, we found that stimulating mesolimbic systems with an electrode to promote dopamine release turned on intense ‘wanting’ to eat, but failed to increase ‘liking’ at all (Berridge and Valenstein, 1991).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Valenstein, 1991

In the paper

“An amphetamine microinjection that releases dopamine in nucleus accumbens selectively magnifies only the CS triggered peaks of cue-triggered ‘wanting,’ without raising baseline effort based on act-outcome expectations or the effect of an irrelevant CS- control sound (Pecina and Berridge, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pecina and Berridge, 2013

In the paper

“The size of each hotspot discovered so far is only a cubic millimeter or so in volume in the brain of a rat.”

In the paper

“Our research findings have indicated that pleasure ‘liking’ is generated by an anatomically small, neurochemically restricted, and functionally fragile brain circuit – which leaves out the large dopamine projection system of ‘wanting’ (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015 source

In the paper

“At the moment the rat re-encounters the salt-cue lever in newly depleted state, its mesocorticolimbic dopamine brain system of incentive salience is triggered into high activity, evident neurally as dopamine-related neurons start transcribing genes such as c-fos into protein such as Fos, to trigger metabolic activation of neuronal functions.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Robinson and Berridge, 2013

In the paper

“The dopamine elevation makes the cues trigger much higher surges of ‘wanting’ than they ordinarily would, but these surges decay within a minute or so once the cue disappears, although the dopamine remains continuously high.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wyvell and Berridge, 2000
• Not checked yetcites Pecina and Berridge, 2013

In the paper

“The transformation of the CS-triggered motivation needs no new learning – it happens even before the rat ever re-tastes Dead sea saltiness in its newly ‘liked’ status.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Robinson and Berridge, 2013

In the paper

“Both the ‘wanting’ and the ‘fear’ generated by these brain manipulations require mesolimbic dopamine signals in the nucleus accumbens.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“Positive ‘wanting’ required only D1 types of receptor activation by dopamine, whereas negative ‘fear’ required activation of both D1 and D2 types, which implicates additional neuronal circuitry (Richard and Berridge, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“Tapping keys in the front of this structure elicits strong ‘wanting,’ reflected as large increases in eating (doubling or quadrupling food intake), or creating a desire to return to the place where the key was tapped.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge, 2011

In the paper

“Only anatomical extremes resist retuning, so that far-anterior sites remain resolutely appetitive while far-posterior sites remain ‘fear-generating,’ regardless of external ambience (Figure 3).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge, 2008 source

In the paper

“The posterior portion of its medial shell has two ‘fear’ generating neurochemical modes (glutamate AMPA receptor blockade versus GABA receptor activation), and only the GABA mode also generates excessive ‘disgust’.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Faure et al., 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Ho and Berridge, 2014

In the paper

“In this discussion, I will sometimes combine motivation and emotion together because those psychological categories overlap in phenomena, making it hard to draw absolute distinctions.”

In the paper

“In some cases, asking people to describe their emotional reasons for making a choice may lead them to construct false explanations of their own behavior. It can lead them astray from their immediate gut reactions that would be more emotionally authentic.”

In the paper

“In fact, most science is rather a matter of reducing uncertainty by degrees, experiment by experiment, gradually building incremental evidence for a particular hypothesis, and gradually ruling out specific alternatives.”

In the paper

“Quite a lot of evidence exists, and in my view it does not support the idea that emotions are necessarily conscious, nor that verbal reports are the best way to assess emotion.”

In the paper

“I review evidence that emotions exist as core psychological processes, which have objectively detectable features, and which can occur either with subjective feelings or without them.”

In the paper

“Conversely, lack of incentive salience may cause motivational forms of anhedonia in depression or schizophrenia, whereas a negatively-valenced form of ‘fearful salience’ may contribute to paranoia.”

In the paper

“Quite a lot of evidence actually contradicts contentions that emotions are always subjective feelings, and instead suggests that emotions can also occur even in people without being subjectively felt – at least under some conditions.”

In the paper

“Indeed, bringing introspective attention to pleasure feelings may actually dissipate those hedonic feelings: less introspective attention can mean more emotion, as well as more accuracy about the underlying emotional reaction, in some cases (Wilson and Schooler, 1991; Dijksterhuis et al., 2006; Schooler and Mauss, 2010; Torre and Lieberman, 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wilson and Schooler, 1991 source
• Not checked yetcites Dijksterhuis et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Schooler and Mauss, 2010

In the paper

“Motivation was once thought in terms of aversive drives, and reward was thought of in terms of drive reduction.”

In the paper

“Motivation-as-drive concepts were largely replaced by motivation-as-incentive concepts, yet aversive drive concepts still occasionally surface in reward neuroscience today.”

In the paper

“Conversely, I will often distinguish between conscious or subjective feelings and unconscious or objective core processes within emotion and motivation. Although these often occur together, they sometimes need to be considered separately.”

In the paper

“Excessive incentive salience can cause addictions, in which excessive ‘wanting’ can diverge from cognitive desires.”

In the paper

“There is also evidence that basic affective reactions can be triggered unconsciously by subliminal stimuli in ordinary humans, and can remain unreportable as feelings even when they go on to change a person’s behavior and subsequent judgments (Zajonc, 1980; Fischman and Foltin, 1992; Berridge and Winkielman, 2003; Winkielman and Berridge, 2004; Winkielman et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zajonc, 1980 source
• Not checked yetcites Fischman and Foltin, 1992
• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Winkielman, 2003

In the paper

“Indeed, some philosophers of science have argued that scientific data never fully prove any hypothesis with complete certainty (there is always a potential alternative lurking in the wings), but only can falsify bad hypotheses (Popper, 1972).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Popper, 1972

In the paper

“We all agree it is important to distinguish between subjective emotional feelings and objective emotional reactions.”

In the paper

“Dropping a demand for scientific certainty for emotion in other humans, but insisting on it for animals, is to adopt a double standard on proof.”

In the paper

“Ordinarily, incentive salience adds motivational urgency to cognitive desires, but ‘wanting’ and cognitive desires can dissociate in some conditions.”

In the paper

“These emotional reactions occur as core affective processes that can remain intrinsically psychological and emotional, even without conscious feelings, and which have objective consequences and features that can be detected in physiology and/or behavior.”

In the paper

“My own view is similar: that affective reactions can occur unconsciously, as well as consciously, and that we share many emotional processes and their brain circuitry with animals.”

In the paper

“Clearly there is no scientific certainty about the minimum neural circuitry needed for consciousness: neuroscientists disagree among themselves over whether the essential basis is cortical versus subcortical, and so on.”

In the paper

“Among incentive concepts, incentive salience is a core motivation process, mediated by brain mesocorticolimbic systems (dopamine-related systems) and sometimes called ‘wanting’ (in quotation marks), to distinguish it from cognitive forms of desire (wanting without quotation marks).”

In the paper

“Finally, negative ‘fear’ and ‘disgust’ have both partial overlap but also important neural differences.”

In the paper

“Sensitized mesolimbic dopamine neurons release more dopamine when a drug is taken, their dopamine-receiving target neurons become more receptive to excitatory glutamate signals, etc.”

In the paper

“For now, my main point is simply that these results demonstrate that bivalent affective reactions can be subjectively unconscious even in adult humans, and even when detected objectively in behavior.”

In the paper

“Dopamine surges in nucleus accumbens evoked by addictive amphetamine or by L-DOPA correlate poorly with human subjective liking ratings of the drug - but do control their subjective wanting ratings to take more of that drug (Leyton et al., 2002; Evans et al., 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leyton et al., 2002 source
• Not checked yetcites Evans et al., 2006 source

In the paper

“That is because neural sensitization grows or ‘incubates’ over weeks of drug abstinence, so that craving becomes stronger, and once sensitization emerges it can last years in animals and humans (Paulson et al., 1991; Boileau et al., 2006; Li et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Paulson et al., 1991 source
• Not checked yetcites Boileau et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Li et al., 2015

In the paper

“However, this lack of therapeutic development could just as well mean that Pavlovian fear learning (e.g., behavioral freezing to a sound that predicts footshock) was not the best animal ‘fear’ reaction for assessing the efficacy of fear-reducing medications.”

In the paper

“I believe these include a few from my own lab, and one is the brain-based distinction between ‘wanting’ and ‘liking’ pleasant rewards (Figure 1), described next.”

In the paper

“Thirst is a physiological state that should specifically amplify brain mesolimbic reactivity to perception of a drink, amplifying its incentive salience, and providing a higher brain motivation signal for unconscious emotional reactions to modulate.”

In the paper

“They suggest: “each animal species has at its disposal some innate primary actions that implement the functions we have assigned to the ur-emotions” (p. 412)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Frijda and Parrott, 2011

In the paper

“In any case, a counterargument has been made that many of the current anti-anxiety medications used by human patients actually were developed through various animal models of ‘fearful’ reactions (Treit et al., 2010; Bourin, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Treit et al., 2010
• Not checked yetcites Bourin, 2015 source

In the paper

“Schematic understanding is the way we study perception, learning, memory and cognition in animals. It’s even how we measure and understand perception in people whose visual world differs from ours (e.g., detecting color blindness).”

In the paper

“Similarly, the psychologists of emotion Nico Frijda and W. Gerrod Parrott, posit that animals as well as humans can express ‘ur-emotions,’ as objectively detectable psychological processes that combine appraisals, affective attitudes and action readiness.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Frijda and Parrott, 2011

In the paper

“For that, we need to posit continuity between those affective mechanisms in animals and humans.”

In the paper

“Similarly, it is now increasingly clear that increases of human dopamine do not reliably cause enhancement of subjective ratings of pleasure (although many rewards do induce dopamine release as a consequence and correlate, but not the cause, of pleasure) (Leyton et al., 2002; Evans et al., 2006; Liggins et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leyton et al., 2002 source
• Not checked yetcites Evans et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Liggins et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“In short, the early animal evidence showed that ‘liking’ was different from ‘wanting,’ and that dopamine mediated ‘wanting’ but not ‘liking’ (Figure 1).”

In the paper

“And there are many other cases where animal studies of emotion have produced results with successful implications for understanding human psychology and disorders.”

In the paper

“Studies began to report that blockade of human dopamine receptors by antagonist drugs, or dietary-induced reductions of dopamine release, did not reduce people’s subjective liking ratings for food pleasure, or for drug pleasures of cocaine or heroin (Brauer and De Wit, 1997; Leyton, 2010; Sienkiewicz-Jarosz et al., 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brauer and De Wit, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Leyton, 2010
• Not checked yetcites Sienkiewicz-Jarosz et al., 2013 source

In the paper

“According to drive theories, the intense motivations had to be aversive.”

In the paper

“Drive was typically conceived as an aversive state that goaded behavior into action to reduce the unpleasant drive (hunger, thirst, sex, drug withdrawal, etc.).”

In the paper

“However, other neuroscientists have found that mice will actually work to turn on their hypothalamic AgRP neurons that previously made them eat, indicating that the increased appetite can be dissociated from negative valence, and even take on a positive valence in the right conditions (Chen et al., 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Chen et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“Receptor-stimulated DDS patients can become sensitized, and are reported to compulsively pursue incentive activities in an addictive-like fashion: gambling, shopping, sex, internet, hobbies, taking drugs or even over-consuming their medications in much higher quantities than intended by their physicians (Ondo and Lai, 2008; Callesen et al., 2013; Friedman and Chang, 2013; Politis et al., 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ondo and Lai, 2008
• Not checked yetcites Callesen et al., 2013 source
• Not checked yetcites Friedman and Chang, 2013

In the paper

“For example, in drug addiction, the opponent-process theory posited negative hedonic states of withdrawal and dysphoria to be the chief force driving addicts to take drugs (Solomon and Corbit, 1974), a view that still has adherents (Koob and Volkow, 2016; Keramati et al., 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Solomon and Corbit, 1974 source
• Not checked yetcites Koob and Volkow, 2016 source
• Not checked yetcites Keramati et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“Natural motivations were viewed by drive-reduction theory as generators of aversive states, triggered by signals for physiological homeostatic needs (low nutrient reserves for hunger, dehydration for thirst) or of other forms of deprivation (lack of sex, withdrawal from addictive drugs, etc.) (Hull, 1951; Miller, 1971).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hull, 1951
• Not checked yetcites Miller, 1971

In the paper

“on grounds that dopamine does not actually cause pleasure nor does dopamine downregulation cause pleasure deficits, and on grounds that addictions persist after withdrawal syndromes go away (Berridge and Robinson, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“However, a mouse may subsequently avoid a flavor that was paired with the AgRP neuronal stimulation that made it eat, leading some authors to suggest that stimulated hunger is necessarily an aversive drive that the mouse later associates with the flavor (Betley et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Betley et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“Drive reduction served as reward in this motivational framework; not as a positive pleasure or incentive, but in a negative reinforcement sense of eliminating the aversive drive.”

In the paper

“Many patients who pursue one of those activities may also pursue a second or a third, as their sensitized ‘wanting’ spills over into several potential targets and typically the compulsive motivations decline when the medications are reduced or stopped.”

In the paper

“According to drive reduction theories, reward was produced by reducing motivations, not by increasing drives.”

In the paper

“Some investigators therefore have suggested their deficit really reflects a selective loss of incentive motivation or ‘wanting,’ rather than loss of pleasure ‘liking’ (Sienkiewicz-Jarosz et al., 2005; Dowd and Barch, 2010; Treadway and Zald, 2011; Barch et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sienkiewicz-Jarosz et al., 2005 source
• Not checked yetcites Dowd and Barch, 2010
• Not checked yetcites Treadway and Zald, 2011 source

In the paper

“Their respective rewards were all viewed to reduce the unpleasant drives, by consuming the drive’s goal object until the aversive deficit state was gone (food, water, copulation, addictive drug, etc.).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hull, 1951
• Not checked yetcites Miller, 1971

In the paper

“It quickly became clear that brain reward electrodes were not only rewarding (in the sense that rats and people worked eagerly to activate them), but the same electrodes were also often powerfully motivating in the sense of apparently turning on natural motivations.”

In the paper

“However, recent studies suggest that many patients with schizophrenia or Parkinson’s, and possibly some with major depression, are not actually anhedonic after all: they report normal sensory pleasure ratings of ice cream or other sensory reward in the moment, even though they attach little value to any sensory, social or other pleasant reward in life.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sienkiewicz-Jarosz et al., 2005 source
• Not checked yetcites Dowd and Barch, 2010
• Not checked yetcites Treadway and Zald, 2011 source

In the paper

“The electrodes may actually not have caused much pleasure ‘liking’ after all, but they certainly activated ‘wanting’ for a variety of natural incentives (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015 source

In the paper

“Hunger neurons are thought to include those in the hypothalamus that release agouti-related peptide (AgRP), and stimulating those neurons cause mice to eat.”

In the paper

“That is, simply giving free stimulations of the electrodes, without making them work for it, caused rats to suddenly start eating, or start drinking, or begin engaging in sex, or parental behaviors, etc. (Valenstein et al., 1970).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valenstein et al., 1970 source

In the paper

“Thus behavioral neuroscientists of the time expected that an electrode that increased sex or hunger or thirst motivations, would be a punishing electrode. They expected that a reward electrode would reduce drive, and so stop any ongoing eating, drinking, or sex behavior – never stimulate those motivations.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miller, 1973
• Not checked yetcites Olds, 1973
• Not checked yetcites Stuber and Wise, 2016

In the paper

“Compulsive motivations of DDS do not seem to involve higher pleasure ‘liking’ for the pursued reward once obtained, but rather exist alone as intense and often disturbing ‘wants.’”

In the paper

“However, this hedonic deficiency view has been critiqued on grounds that dopamine receptor downregulation is probably a consequence of drug taking rather than the original cause of addiction, on grounds that dopamine does not actually cause pleasure nor does dopamine downregulation cause pleasure deficits, and on grounds that addictions persist after withdrawal syndromes go away (Berridge and”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“These thirst-study authors found that artificial stimulation of neurons in the hypothalamus made mice drink, but that mice would work to turn off the stimulation if given a choice, thus leading the authors to suggest that thirst is essentially aversive.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Allen et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“Similarly in human psychiatric patients who had been implanted with similar brain electrodes, activation of a reward electrode caused sudden sexual urges, or urges to drink, or other intense motivations, in addition to supporting button pressing to self-stimulate their electrodes (Moan and Heath, 1972).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Moan and Heath, 1972

In the paper

“To drive theorists, a reward electrode that also increased motivation is an inexplicable paradox (Miller, 1973; Olds, 1973; Stuber and Wise, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miller, 1973
• Not checked yetcites Olds, 1973
• Not checked yetcites Stuber and Wise, 2016

In the paper

“Modern proponents suggest that downregulation or loss of brain dopamine D2 receptors (one of the two main types of neuronal receptors for dopamine) make addicts experience less pleasure in their lives than other people (Koob and Volkow, 2016; Keramati et al., 2017). Consequently, these theorists argue that addicts must take addictive drugs to achieve normal levels of dopamine stimulation and”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Koob and Volkow, 2016 source
• Not checked yetcites Keramati et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“That is, a food incentive cue elicits eating, but a hunger cue does not.”

In the paper

“Incentive motivation theories posit that motivation is directed toward affectively positive incentives, and that brain motivation systems modulate those incentive values (Toates, 1986; Berridge, 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986
• Not checked yetcites Berridge, 2004 source

In the paper

“Similarly, hungry rats merely walked slowly to a place where they expect intra-gastric milk, but eagerly ran to a place where they could drink and taste the milk while hungry (Miller and Kessen, 1952).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miller and Kessen, 1952

In the paper

“Incentive motivation is focused on reward, which involve three categories of mechanism: wanting, liking and learning.”

In the paper

“For example, delivering daily calories intravenously to dogs, who were also allowed to eat actual food normally if they wished, did not suppress their daily eating intake: the dogs continued to eat customary amounts of food in addition to their full doses of intravenous nutrients, and so soon became obese (Turner et al., 1975).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Turner et al., 1975

In the paper

“However, if opportunity to taste a mouthful of saccharin at the same time as a gastric nutrient infusion, then the rats do learn to bar press for the combination (the sweet taste by itself is similarly insufficient, revealing an importance of interaction between incentive stimulus and physiological state, captured by Bindra-Toates rules of incentive motivation described below) (Holman, 1969).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Holman, 1969 source

In the paper

“Hunger acts to enhance the incentive value of food, and thirst enhances the incentive value of water – but in the absence of incentives or their learned expectation, neither need state effectively motivates behavior as posited by aversive drive theory.”

In the paper

“Similarly, for thirst,: encountering a place paired with thirst drive does not alter behavior, but encountering a cue for water will evoke intense increases in activity in thirsty rats, as though searching for water (Campbell, 1960).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Campbell, 1960 source

In the paper

“For example, rats typically fail to increase eating in a place previously paired with hunger drive, nor to increase drinking in a place paired with thirst drive (Huston, 1972; Mineka et al., 1972; Toates, 1986).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Huston, 1972
• Not checked yetcites Mineka et al., 1972 source
• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986

In the paper

“‘Liking’ reactions reflect the hedonic impact of pleasant reward, and is often considered the essentional kernal of reward.”

In the paper

“In these cases, cues for the incentive stimulus evoke motivation in a state, whereas cues for the drive state by itself do not.”

In the paper

“Both incentive motivation and fearful motivation require local mesolimbic dopamine.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynolds and Berridge (2008) source
• Not checked yetcites Richard and Berridge (2011)

In the paper

“Incentive salience makes those reward cues attractive and attention-grabbing, eliciting approach and giving them a ‘motivational magnet’ property (Saunders and Robinson, 2013; Flagel and Robinson, 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Saunders and Robinson, 2013
• Not checked yetcites Flagel and Robinson, 2017

In the paper

“However, a ‘wanting’ increase may still may occur in such a case, again illustrating the more robust nature of ‘wanting’ circuitry (Smith and Berridge, 2007; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Smith and Berridge, 2007
• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015 source

In the paper

“Frederick Toates suggested in the 1980s that reward cues additionally participate in a CS-state interaction, similar to a reward UCS-state interaction called alliesthesia.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986

In the paper

“Incentive salience is often thus a spur to action, reflecting the overlap between dopamine functions of motivation and of movement (Salamone et al., 2015, 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Salamone et al., 2015 source
• Not checked yetcites Salamone et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“Reward cues alone are relatively powerless at producing motivation without an appropriate brain state. It’s the brain’s reaction to a cue that matters for ‘wanting’ motivation via incentive salience (Berridge, 2012; Dayan and Berridge, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge, 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Dayan and Berridge, 2014

In the paper

“That is, an incentive percept (food or associated cues) would generate intense motivation when perceived in a physiologically hungry state, but not so much when perceived in a satiated state.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986

In the paper

“Toates suggested that a learned cue or CS similarly interacted with an individual’s current internal state to generate incentive motivation.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Toates, 1986

In the paper

“These cue features include the ability of CSs to trigger motivated ‘wanting’ to seek and consume their reward, and to a degree also trigger hedonic ‘liking.’”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bindra, 1978 source

In the paper

“Alliesthesia refers to the phenomenon that food becomes more hedonically rewarding when we are in a state of hunger, water is more rewarding when thirsty, nasty seawater becomes a rewarding taste if we are sodium-deprived, warmth is more rewarding when we are cold, coolness more rewarding when we are hot, and so on (Cabanac, 1971).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Cabanac, 1971 source

In the paper

“This may be why people who experience a novel salt appetite sometimes report feeling slightly ill, but do not necessarily crave salt (Leshem, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leshem, 2009 source

In the paper

“This hypothesis is based on evidence of mesolimbic dopamine hyperactivity in schizophrenia, and also on the ability of anti-dopamine drugs that block D2 receptors to treat schizophrenic symptoms.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Howes and Kapur, 2009 source

In the paper

“In humans, disgust and fear expressions have nearly opposite statistical patterns of facial configuration, giving rise to the suggestion that these facial expressions may oppositely modulate sensory feedback: fear expressions may enhance relevant sensory perception (e.g., eye widening), whereas disgust may suppress relevant sensory perception (Susskind et al., 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Susskind et al., 2008 source

In the paper

“Addiction is the most extreme example, as neural sensitization makes brain dopamine systems more permanently hyper-responsive to drugs and drug cues, triggering strong urges to relapse and actually take drugs.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“Sensitized ‘wanting’ in addicts creates a probabilistic form of cue-triggered compulsion, in the form of exaggerated temptation that can come by surprise, be amplified further by stress, and be hard to resist (Berridge and Robinson, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge and Robinson, 2016

In the paper

“However, neural mechanisms that generate ‘disgust’ and ‘fear’ reactions are mostly distinct, though they do partly overlap in the posterior shell of nucleus accumbens (Faure et al., 2010; Maren et al., 2013; Ho and Berridge, 2014; Perusini and Fanselow, 2015; Paré and Quirk, 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Faure et al., 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Maren et al., 2013 source
• Not checked yetcites Ho and Berridge, 2014

In the paper

“In many cases, conclusions can transfer from affective neuroscience studies based on animals to human emotions and motivations.”

In the paper

“Of course, an incremental difference at one overlapping stage of a neural circuit can still be translated into qualitative neural and psychological differences at other stages to recruit different anatomical patterns of activity.”

In the paper

“But those that do often carry important implications for understanding human clinical affective disorders.”

In the paper

“Admittedly, not all conclusions will transfer.”

In the paper

“In such cases, animal findings at the very least tell investigators what to look for in people, shaping the questions to be asked so that the right answers are found.”

In the paper

“Because nucleus accumbens neurons normally inhibit their targets (by themselves releasing GABA as neurotransmitter), this stronger inhibition could release downstream neurons in ventral pallidum and other targets into higher excitation levels, to produce the additional emotional reaction.”

In the paper

“Best progress in building an integrated psychology and affective neuroscience of emotion and motivation requires combining human and animal approaches together, and consideration of both subjective and objective features of affective reactions.”

In the paper

“These core affective processes can be schematically understood, so that their psychological features become objectively identified, and allowing them to be mapped to underlying brain mechanisms.”

In the paper

“The GABA drug probably produces a stronger electrophysiological inhibition of shell neurons than the glutamate blocking drug (e.g., DNQX), which produces only a mode of pure coping ‘fear.’”

In the paper

“Emotional and motivational processes occur in people most notably as subjective feelings, but also have underlying core psychological processes with objective features.”