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The Future of Memory: Remembering, Imagining, and the Brain
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During the past few years, there has been a dramatic increase in research examining the role of memory in imagination and future thinking. This work has revealed striking similarities between remembering the past and imagining or simulating the future, including the finding that a common brain network underlies both memory and imagination. Here, we discuss a number of key points that have emerged during recent years, focusing in particular on the importance of distinguishing between temporal and nontemporal factors in analyses of memory and imagination, the nature of differences between remembering the past and imagining the future, the identification of component processes that comprise the default network supporting memory-based simulations, and the finding that this network can couple flexibly with other networks to support complex goal-directed simulations. This growing area of research has broadened our conception of memory by highlighting the many ways in which memory supports adaptive functioning.
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In the citing paper
“suggest that visual imagery may be an essential and unifying representational format potentiating these processes.”
From A cognitive profile of multi-sensory imagery, memory and dreaming in aphantasia (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The default network has shown robust activation when people imagine future experiences [14, 22–23].”
From Creative Cognition and Brain Network Dynamics (2016) · cites this paper as [23]
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In the citing paper
“Some key issues remain controversial, such as the nature of hippocampal contributions to episodic future thinking, and the related question of the extent to which neural and cognitive signatures of episodic future thinking are specific to imagining future experiences as opposed to atemporal imagining or imagining counterfactuals to past experiences”
From Episodic Future Thinking: Mechanisms and Functions (2017) · cites this paper as [4]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Studies on this topic have indicated that episodic memory may be recruited for additional tasks where particular details of past experiences are leveraged to generate, or assemble and maintain, mental content that incorporates specific elements of prior events.”
From Neural Mechanisms of Episodic Retrieval Support Divergent Creative Thinking (2019) · cites this paper as Schacter et al. 2012
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In the citing paper
“Strikingly, during the past decade, episodic memory, and the neural processes that support it, have been found to be engaged during tasks beyond simple remembering that may also involve the retrieval and reconstruction of episodic details for completion, such as future thinking or simulation, decision making, and problem solving (for review, see Schacter et al. 2012;Moscovitch et al. 2016;Schacter”
From Neural Mechanisms of Episodic Retrieval Support Divergent Creative Thinking (2019) · cites this paper as Schacter et al. 2012
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“Recent conceptual work has suggested that engagement of the hippocampus (and core network more broadly) is exhibited during generative tasks that nominally involve the retrieval and reconstruction of episodic details for completion, such as simulation, decision making, and problem solving”
From Neural Mechanisms of Episodic Retrieval Support Divergent Creative Thinking (2019) · cites this paper as Schacter et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“The DMN is associated with cognitive processes that require internally-directed or self-generated thought, such as mind-wandering10, future thinking11, perspective taking12, and mental simulation13.”
From Default and executive network coupling supports creative idea production (2015) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Indeed, functional magnetic resonance imaging studies on healthy subjects reveal that the same brain activation patterns are generated when people imagine the future as when they remember the past [21–24]”
From Is episodic-like memory like episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“It has been well demonstrated that people tend to remember better those life-episodes, which are distinct and personally meaningful and, of importance for the present study, relate to the self or self-consciousness [21,24,28,30,124–126].”
From First-person view of one’s body in immersive virtual reality: Influence on episodic memory (2019) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“These regions, including RSC, are believed to form a network that mediates both prospective thought and episodic memory49.”
From Anchoring the neural compass: coding of local spatial reference frames in human medial parietal lobe (2014) · cites this paper as [49]
In the citing paper
“Hippocampus and vmPFC are part of a MTL subsystem of the default network (74) that supports the formation of mental models based on mnemonic content during both memory retrieval and the simulation and encoding of future events (36, 75, 76).”
From Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory (2013) · cites this paper as [36]
In the citing paper
“This article will be included because of the information regarding the differences between memory and imagination which could come into play when investigating Integrated Information Theory.”
From The Ergonomics of Learning: A Proposed Update to Bloom’s Taxonomy (2025) · cites this paper as Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., Hassabis, D., Martin, V. C., Spreng, R. N., & Szpunar, K. K. (2012)
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Schacter, D. L., & Slotnick, S. D. (2004) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.017 · Cited by 309
Self-citationTracking the construction of episodic future thoughts
D'Argembeau, A., & Mathy, A. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0022581 · Cited by 294
Recalling yesterday and predicting tomorrow
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Looking forward, looking back: Anticipation is more evocative than retrospection.
Leaf Van Boven, A., & Ashworth, L. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.2.289 · Cited by 291
Episodic simulation of future events is impaired in mild Alzheimer's disease
Addis, D. R., Sacchetti, D. C., Ally, B. A., Budson, A. E., & Schacter, D. L. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.05.018 · Cited by 287
Self-citationThe Hippocampus and Imagining the Future: Where Do We Stand?
Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00173 · Cited by 285
Self-citationRelevance to self: A brief review and framework of neural systems underlying appraisal
Schmitz, T. W., & Johnson, S. C. (2007) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.12.003 · Cited by 282
Mental models and counterfactual thoughts about what might have been
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Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2007) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20405 · Cited by 275
Self-citationReductions in cortical activity during priming
Schacter, D. L., Wig, G. S., & Stevens, W. D. (2007) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2007.02.001 · Cited by 270
Self-citationEpisodic memory and episodic future thinking in adults with autism.
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On the nature of medial temporal lobe contributions to the constructive simulation of future events
Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0308 · Cited by 226
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Self-citationNeural correlates of envisioning emotional events in the near and far future
D’Argembeau, A., Xue, G., Lu, Z., der Linden, M. V., & Bechara, A. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.11.025 · Cited by 216
Characterizing age-related changes in remembering the past and imagining the future
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Default Network Modulation and Large-Scale Network Interactivity in Healthy Young and Old Adults
Spreng, R. N., & Schacter, D. L. (2012) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr339 · Cited by 214
Self-citationThe temporal distribution of past and future autobiographical events across the lifespan
Spreng, R. N., & Levine, B. (2006) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195927 · Cited by 211
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“A longstanding question concerns whether the constructive nature of memory serves any adaptive function (Bartlett, 1932; Hardt et al., 2010; Howe, 2011; Newman & Lindsay, 2009; Schacter, 2001; Schacter et al., 2011).”
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Self-citationRole of the hippocampus in remembering the past and imagining the future
Squire, L. R., van der Horst, A. S., McDuff, S. G. R., Frascino, J. C., Hopkins, R. O., & Mauldin, K. N. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1014391107 · Cited by 206
Consciousness of subjective time in the brain
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Szpunar, K. K., & Schacter, D. L. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0028877 · Cited by 195
Self-citationThe Neural Basis of Personal Goal Processing When Envisioning Future Events
D'Argembeau, A., Stawarczyk, D., Majerus, S., Collette, F., Van der Linden, M., Feyers, D., Maquet, P., & Salmon, E. (2010) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21314 · Cited by 194
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Information Processing in Decision-Making Systems
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Component processes underlying future thinking
D’Argembeau, A., Bucher, C. O., Jumentier, S., & der Linden, M. V. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.6.809 · Cited by 188
Roediger, H. L., Dudai, Y., & Fitzpatrick, S. M. (2007) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195310443.001.0001 · Cited by 187
The Least Likely of Times: How Remembering the Past Biases Forecasts of the Future
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Hippocampal contributions to the episodic simulation of specific and general future events
Addis, D. R., Cheng, T., P. Roberts, R., & Schacter, D. L. (2011) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20870 · Cited by 182
Self-citationBrown, A. D., Root, J. C., Romano, T. A., Chang, L. J., Bryant, R. A., & Hirst, W. C. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.11.004 · Cited by 180
D’Argembeau (2012) · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.647697 · Cited by 179
Dynamic neural networks supporting memory retrieval
Jacques, P. L. S., Kragel, P. A., & Rubin, D. C. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.04.039 · Cited by 167
Counterfactual thinking: an fMRI study on changing the past for a better future
Hoeck, N. V., Ma, N., Ampe, L., Baetens, K., Vandekerckhove, M. M. P., & Overwalle, F. V. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss031 · Cited by 164
Sheldon, S., McAndrews, M. P., & Moscovitch, M. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.04.021 · Cited by 161
Remembering the past and imagining the future in the elderly
Schacter, D. L., Gaesser, B., & Addis, D. R. (2013) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000342198 · Cited by 160
Self-citationDifferential engagement of brain regions within a ‘core’ network during scene construction
Summerfield, J. J., Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.01.022 · Cited by 154
Self-citationDeficits in past remembering extend to future imagining in a case of developmental amnesia
Kwan, D. T., Carson, N., Addis, D. R., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.06.011 · Cited by 153
Self-citationEpisodic memory in 3‐ and 4‐year‐old children
Hayne, H., & Imuta, K. (2011) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.20527 · Cited by 151
Russell, J. A., Alexis, D. M., & Clayton, N. S. (2009) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.013 · Cited by 148
The complex act of projecting oneself into the future
Klein, S. B. (2012) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1210 · Cited by 148
The Optimism Bias: A Tour of the Irrationally Positive Brain
Sharot, T. (2011) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 146
Thinking about the future versus the past in personal and non-personal contexts
Abraham, A., Schubotz, R. I., & von Cramon, D. Y. (2008) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.084 · Cited by 146
Medial Prefrontal Cortex Predicts Intertemporal Choice
Mitchell, J. P., Schirmer, J., Ames, D. L., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21479 · Cited by 146
A role for the hippocampus in encoding simulations of future events
Martin, V. C., Schacter, D. L., Corballis, M. C., & Addis, D. R. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1105816108 · Cited by 144
Self-citationDefault-mode function and task-induced deactivation have overlapping brain substrates in children
Thomason, M. E., Chang, C. E., Glover, G. H., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Greicius, M. D., & Gotlib, I. H. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.029 · Cited by 142
Episodic memory versus episodic foresight: Similarities and differences
Suddendorf, T. (2009) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.23 · Cited by 140
Duval, C., Desgranges, B., de La Sayette, V., Belliard, S., Eustache, F., & Piolino, P. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.11.019 · Cited by 138
Theory of Mind Is Independent of Episodic Memory
Rosenbaum, R. S., Stuss, D. T., Levine, B., & Tulving, E. (2007) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1148763 · Cited by 136
Mental time travel into the past and the future in healthy aged adults: An fMRI study
Viard, A., Chételat, G., Lebreton, K., Desgranges, B., Landeau, B., de La Sayette, V., Eustache, F., & Piolino, P. (2011) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2010.10.009 · Cited by 133
Contextual Processing in Episodic Future Thought
Szpunar, K. K., Chan, J. C. K., & McDermott, K. B. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn191 · Cited by 132
Self-citationFuture decision‐making without episodic mental time travel
Kwan, D. T., Craver, C. F., Green, L., Myerson, J., Boyer, P., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2011) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20981 · Cited by 129
When the future feels worse than the past: A temporal inconsistency in moral judgment.
Caruso, E. M. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0020757 · Cited by 127
Memory for Emotional Simulations
Szpunar, K. K., Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611422237 · Cited by 126
Self-citationFuture thinking in Parkinson's disease: An executive function?
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Bilateral hippocampal lesion and a selective impairment of the ability for mental time travel
Andelman, F., Hoofien, D., Goldberg, I., Aizenstein, O., & Neufeld, M. Y. (2010) · Neurocase · doi:10.1080/13554791003623318 · Cited by 120
Age-related neural changes in autobiographical remembering and imagining
Addis, D. R., Roberts, R. P., & Schacter, D. L. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.09.021 · Cited by 118
Self-citationFalse memories: What the hell are they for?
Newman, E. J., & Lindsay, D. S. (2009) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1613 · Cited by 118
The effect of hippocampal damage in children on recalling the past and imagining new experiences
Cooper, J. M., Vargha-Khadem, F., Gadian, D. G., & Maguire, E. A. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.03.008 · Cited by 116
Self in time: imagined self-location influences neural activity related to mental time travel
Arzy, S., Molnar-Szakacs, I., & Blanke, O. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5712-07.2008 · Cited by 110
Caruso, E. M., Leaf Van Boven, A., Chin, M. J., & Ward, A. C. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612458804 · Cited by 110
Mental time travel and default-mode network functional connectivity in the developing brain
Østby, Y., Walhovd, K. B., Tamnes, C. K., Grydeland, H., Westlye, L. T., & Fjell, A. M. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1210627109 · Cited by 109
Age differences in default mode activity on easy and difficult spatial judgment tasks
Park, D. C. (2010) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/neuro.09.075.2009 · Cited by 105
The Adaptive Nature of Memory and Its Illusions
Howe, M. L. (2011) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721411416571 · Cited by 104
Subjective mental time: the functional architecture of projecting the self to past and future
Arzy, S., Collette, S., Ionta, S., Fornari, E., & Blanke, O. (2009) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06974.x · Cited by 104
Imagining the near and far future: The role of location familiarity
Arnold, K. M., McDermott, K. B., & Szpunar, K. K. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0076-1 · Cited by 103
Self-citationImagining fictitious and future experiences: Evidence from developmental amnesia
Maguire, E. A., Vargha‐Khadem, F., & Hassabis, D. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.06.037 · Cited by 102
Self-citationBarbey, A. K., Krüeger, F., & Grafman, J. H. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0315 · Cited by 100
The optimism bias: a tour of the irrationally positive brain
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-2653 · Cited by 99
Anderson, R. J., & Dewhurst, S. A. (2009) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210902751669 · Cited by 95
Episodic future thinking in amnesic mild cognitive impairment
Gamboz, N., De Vito, S., Brandimonte, M. A., Pappalardo, S., Galeone, F., Iavarone, A., & Sala, S. D. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.03.030 · Cited by 95
Gallo, D. A., Korthauer, L. E., McDonough, I. M., Teshale, S. M., & Johnson, E. L. (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.595723 · Cited by 94
Abraham, A., von Cramon, D. Y., & Schubotz, R. I. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20059 · Cited by 94
Role of the hippocampus in imagination and future thinking
Maguire, E. A., & Hassabis, D. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1018876108 · Cited by 94
Self-citationWeiler, J. A., Suchan, B., & Daum, I. (2010) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20695 · Cited by 93
Patient HC with developmental amnesia can construct future scenarios
Hurley, N. C., Maguire, E. A., & Vargha-Khadem, F. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.09.015 · Cited by 91
Brigard, F. D., & Giovanello, K. S. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.06.007 · Cited by 89
Scene Construction in Amnesia: An fMRI Study
Mullally, S. L., Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5522-11.2012 · Cited by 89
Self-citationSvoboda, E., & Levine, B. (2009) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3452-08.2009 · Cited by 88
The Development of Episodic Foresight
Hudson, J. A., Mayhew, E. M. Y., & Prabhakar, J. (2011) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386491-8.00003-7 · Cited by 85
On the representational systems underlying prospection: Evidence from the event-cueing paradigm
D’Argembeau, A., & Demblon, J. (2012) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.07.008 · Cited by 84
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Older adults have greater difficulty imagining future rather than atemporal experiences.
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What differentiates episodic future thinking from complex scene imagery?
Vito, S. D., Gamboz, N., & Brandimonte, M. A. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.01.013 · Cited by 79
Worry and the Simulation of Future Outcomes
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The impact of perceived self-efficacy on mental time travel and social problem solving
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Linking yesterday and tomorrow: Preschoolers' ability to report temporally displaced events
Suddendorf, T. (2009) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151009x479169 · Cited by 72
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Andrews‐Hanna, J. R., Smallwood, J., & Spreng, R. N. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12360 · Cited by 2,102
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Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., Summerfield, C., & Botvinick, M. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.011 · Cited by 1,557
Self-citationMind-wandering as spontaneous thought: a dynamic framework
Christoff, K., Irving, Z. C., Fox, K. C. R., Spreng, R. N., & Andrews-Hanna, J. R. (2016) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2016.113 · Cited by 1,376
Self-citationCreative Cognition and Brain Network Dynamics
Beaty, R. E., Benedek, M., Silvia, P. J., & Schacter, D. L. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.10.004 · Cited by 1,105
Self-citationEpisodic memory and beyond: the hippocampus and neocortex in transformation
Moscovitch, M., Cabeza, R., Winocur, G., & Nadel, L. (2016) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143733 · Cited by 1,062
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., Hassabis, D., Martin, V. C., Spreng, R. N., & Szpunar, K. K.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Auckland (NZ)
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit (GB)
- Cornell University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Neuron
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 76
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 677-694
- ISSN
- 0896-6273 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3815616
- OpenAlex
- W2166620359
- Cited by
- 1,398
- References
- 224
- Citations by year
- 2026: 75 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 97 · 2023: 103 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 194 · 2019: 106 · 2018: 115 · 2017: 108 · 2016: 104 · 2015: 78 · 2014: 82 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 5.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 385 d)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Locations
- Neuron (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH060941)
- National Institute on Aging (AG08441)
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- memory, imagination, future thinking, default mode network, artificial neural networks, adaptive cognition
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Humans, Imagination, Memory, Time Factors
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