Networking and innovation: a systematic review of the evidence

Research on 'innovation systems' has recently illustrated that innovation occurs more effectively where there is exchange of knowledge between systems, for example: between different industries; regions; or between science and industry.

“Research on 'innovation systems' has recently illustrated that innovation occurs more effectively where there is exchange of knowledge between systems, for example: between different industries; regions; or between science and industry (Kaufmann and Tödtling, 2001).”

• cites Kaufmann and Tödtling, 2001 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and Section 4 say that exchange between different social systems can strengthen firms’ innovativeness, particularly through science–industry interaction. Section 2 discusses regional innovation systems, but the cited passages do not establish that knowledge exchange between regions—or between different industries—makes innovation more effective. The paper also cautions in Section 4 that science–industry interaction alone is no guarantee of increased innovativeness. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Integration of suppliers in the innovation process is one factor leading to frame-breaking innovation.

“The integration of suppliers in the innovation process has been highlighted as one of the factors leading to frame-breaking innovation (Kaufmann and Tödtling's, 2001;Perez and Sanchez's, 2002;Romijn and Albu's, 2002).”

• cites Kaufmann and Tödtling's, 2001 sourceSupported
• cites Perez and Sanchez's, 2002Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Romijn and Albu's, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The importance of diversity of relationships in networks has been shown to have an impact on innovativeness.

“Based on this work the importance of diversity of relationships in networks has been shown to have an impact on innovativeness (Kaufmann and Tödtling, 2001).”

• cites Kaufmann and Tödtling, 2001 sourceSupported

How networks are governed plays an important role in their effectiveness and their capacity to assist the innovation process.

“Consequently, how networks are governed plays an important role in their effectiveness and their capacity to assist the innovation process (Coles, Harris and Dickson, 2003).”

• cites Coles, Harris and Dickson, 2003 sourceSupported

The annual growth rate of 18% in the pharmaceutical industry was largely linked to networked research and development.

“They demonstrated that the annual growth rate of 18% in the pharmaceutical industry was largely linked to networked research and development.”

• cites Gemser, Leenders and Wijnberg (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The evidence base used in this study is somewhat dominated by a focus on technology and new technology industries.

“Firstly, the evidence base used in this study is somewhat dominated by a focus on technology and new technology industries.”

The sample of papers in the review is balanced toward the high technology and manufacturing industries.

“The sample of papers in the review is consequently balanced toward the high technology and manufacturing industries.”

A UK sector that exemplifies the positive relationship between networking activity and innovation is the biotechnology sector.

“A UK sector that exemplifies the positive relationship between networking activity and innovation is the biotechnology sector.”

The research is fragmented as it is spread across a large number of authors, journals and disciplines in social science.

“The research is also fragmented as it is spread across a large number of authors, journals and disciplines in social science.”

Gemser, Leenders and Wijnberg (1996) demonstrated the impact of networking in the global pharmaceutical industry, the US computer industry and the Italian furniture industry.

“Gemser, Leenders and Wijnberg (1996), for example, demonstrated the impact of networking in the global pharmaceutical industry, the US computer industry and the Italian furniture industry.”

• cites Gemser, Leenders and Wijnberg (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The principal benefits of networking identified in the literature include pooling complementary skills.

“pooling complementary skills (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven, 1996;Hagedoorn and Duysters, 2002);”

• cites Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hagedoorn and Duysters, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Network relationships with suppliers, customers, and intermediaries such as professional and trade associations are important factors affecting innovation performance and productivity.

“The paper provides evidence suggesting that network relationships with suppliers, customers, and intermediaries such as professional and trade associations are important factors affecting innovation performance and productivity.”

The overall total of papers focusing on the UK remains relatively low in terms of total numbers (36 out of 127 papers).

“It should be noted, however, that the overall total of papers focusing on the UK, although filtered to a smaller number using quality criteria, remains relatively low in terms of total numbers (36 out of 127 papers).”

The analysis of the citations on networking and innovation shows an upward trend between 1981 and 2003.

“The analysis of the citations on networking and innovation also shows an upward trend between 1981 and 2003.”

The principal benefits of networking identified in the literature include safeguarding property rights when complete or contingent contracts are not possible.

“safeguarding property rights when complete or contingent contracts are not possible (Leibeskind, Porter, Zucker and Brewer, 1996);”

• cites Leibeskind, Porter, Zucker and Brewer, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

National systems of innovation play an important role in the diffusion of innovations in terms of the way in which they shape networking activity.

“at an institutional level, national systems of innovation do play an important role in the diffusion of innovations in terms of the way in which they shape networking activity (Nooteboom, 2000, Furtardo, 1997).”

• cites Nooteboom, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Furtardo, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Networking behaviour was identified as significantly boosting the innovation output and competitiveness of firms in a diverse range of industries.

“Networking behaviour was identified as significantly boosting the innovation output and competitiveness of firms in a diverse range of industries (Ahuja, 2000;Powell, Koput and Smith-Doerr, 1996).”

• cites Ahuja, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Powell, Koput and Smith-Doerr, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Firms which do not cooperate and which do not formally or informally exchange knowledge limit their knowledge base on a long-term basis and ultimately reduce their ability to enter into exchange relationships.

“The evidence from the literature review also illustrates that those firms which do not cooperate and which do not formally or informally exchange knowledge limit their knowledge base on a long-term basis and ultimately reduce their ability to enter into exchange relationships.”

The review highlighted the need to network when seeking to innovate as a prerequisite across the majority of sectors.

“While the biotech industry illustrates the importance of networking for innovation the review highlighted the need to network when seeking to innovate as a prerequisite across the majority of sectors.”

A large proportion of the articles reviewed focused on the firm level (micro) factors exploring how networks are managed and work in practice (57.7%).

“The thematic review illustrates that a large proportion of the articles reviewed focused on the firm level (micro) factors exploring how networks are managed and work in practice (57.7%).”

The principal benefits of networking identified in the literature include acting as a key vehicle for obtaining access to external knowledge.

“and, acting as a key vehicle for obtaining access to external knowledge (Powell, Koput, and Smith-Doerr, 1996;Cooke, 1996).”

• cites Powell, Koput, and Smith-Doerr, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cooke, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The principal benefits of networking identified in the literature include speeding products to market.

“speeding products to market (Almeida and Kogut, 1999);”

• cites Almeida and Kogut, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The principal benefits of networking identified in the literature include risk sharing.

“To summarise: the innovation benefits of networking identified by the literature include: risk sharing (Grandori, 1997);”

• cites Grandori, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A smaller proportion of the evidence examines the macro or networking infrastructure that can support networking activity (42.3%).

“A smaller proportion of the evidence examines the macro or networking infrastructure that can support networking activity (42.3%).”

The majority of research highlights the role of individuals and more specifically the importance of interpersonal and informal networking for the diffusion of innovations.

“To summarise, with regard to the relationship between networking and the diffusion of innovations, the majority of research highlights the role of individuals and more specifically the importance of interpersonal and informal networking for the diffusion of innovations.”

Through networking the success rate of entrepreneurial initiatives can be enhanced.

“Through networking the success rate of entrepreneurial initiatives can be enhanced (Baum, Calabrese and Silverman, 2000) because interpersonal and interorganisational relationships enable actors to gain access to a variety of resources held by other agents.”

• cites Baum, Calabrese and Silverman, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Firms using particular forms of networking categorised by their relationship with specific parties were likely to have nearly 20% more product improvements than firms that did not network.

“This study demonstrated that firms using particular forms of networking categorised by their relationship with specific parties were likely to have nearly 20% more product improvements than firms that did not network.”

• cites Gemünden, Ritter and Heydebreck's (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Gemünden, Ritter and Heydebreck's (1996) study examined the networking effects of innovation in six high-tech industries.

“Gemünden, Ritter and Heydebreck's (1996) study also examined the networking effects of innovation in six high-tech industries.”

• cites Gemünden, Ritter and Heydebreck's (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Ties to venture capitalists and professional service organisations are other means for tapping into key talent and market information.

“Ties to venture capitalists and professional service organisations are other means for tapping into key talent and market information (Freeman, 1999).”

• cites Freeman, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Research conducted in the global chemical industry between 1979 and 1991 highlighted that firms were most keen to form linkages with other firms where those firms had a high level of commercial competence.

“Research conducted in the global chemical industry between 1979 and 1991 (Ahuja, 2000) highlighted that firms were most keen to form linkages with other firms where those firms had a high level of commercial competence.”

• cites Ahuja, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Successful entrepreneurs consistently use networks to get ideas and gather information and advice.

“A number of other studies also show that successful entrepreneurs consistently use networks to get ideas and gather information and advice (Birley, 1985;Smeltzer, Hook and Hutt, 1991).”

• cites Birley, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Smeltzer, Hook and Hutt, 1991Not checked — no full text of the source

The nature of a firm's alliance network during business formation can have important ramifications for future business performance.

“iv) The nature of a firms' alliance network during business formation can have important ramifications for future business performance (Baum, Calabrese and Silverman, 2000).”

• cites Baum, Calabrese and Silverman, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Networks influence learning about innovative work practices by promoting social interaction, generating trust and reciprocity that is conducive to knowledge transfer.

“They influence this in a number of ways: firstly, by enhancing access to knowledge -promoting awareness and early adoption of innovations -and secondly, by promoting social interaction, generating trust and reciprocity that is conducive to knowledge transfer.”

Frenken's (2000) analysis of the history of the aircraft industry shows the key role of transnational networks in the development of innovative aircraft.

“Using the examples of Concorde and Airbus, Frenken's (2000) analysis of the history of the aircraft industry also shows the key role of transnational networks in the development of innovative aircraft.”

• cites Frenken's (2000) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Networks play a crucial role promoting the development of innovations within and across firms.

“It is also important to recognise that while networks play a crucial role promoting the development of innovations within and across firms they also play a key role in the diffusion of innovations across and within sectors.”

Businesses with few existing relationships often lack the technical and commercial competences required when trying to attract partners.

“Secondly, businesses with few existing relationships often lack the technical and commercial competences required when trying to attract partners (Ahuja, 2000).”

• cites Ahuja, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

All types of network configuration constantly change and adapt depending on the requirements of partners and the context within which the network operates.

“v) All types of network configuration constantly change and adapt depending on the requirements of partners and the context within which the network operates (Larson, 1991).”

• cites Larson, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Networks play a key role in the diffusion of innovations across and within sectors.

“It is also important to recognise that while networks play a crucial role promoting the development of innovations within and across firms they also play a key role in the diffusion of innovations across and within sectors.”

The relative ease with which business-to-business networks form was found to be influenced by social institutions.

“The relative ease with which business-to-business networks form was also found to be influenced by social institutions.”

The development of new products was 7-10% higher in these firms.

“Likewise the development of new products was 7-10% higher in these firms.”

• cites Gemünden, Ritter and Heydebreck's (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There exist at least two barriers to network formation.

“However there exists at least two barriers to network formation.”

Interpersonal and interorganisational relationships enable actors to gain access to a variety of resources held by other agents.

“Through networking the success rate of entrepreneurial initiatives can be enhanced (Baum, Calabrese and Silverman, 2000) because interpersonal and interorganisational relationships enable actors to gain access to a variety of resources held by other agents.”

Network configuration often differs between different forms of innovation required by actors; networks for product innovation are quite different from networks for process innovations.

“iii) Network configuration often differs between different forms of innovation required by actors; networks for product innovation are quite different from networks for process innovations (Gemünden, Ritter and Heydebreck, 1996)”

• cites Gemünden, Ritter and Heydebreck, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Alliances enable firms to gain access to resources, particularly when time is of the essence.

“Alliances enable firms to gain access to resources, particularly when time is of the essence (Teece, 1986;Baum et al. 2000).”

• cites Teece, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Baum et al. 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The more involvement individuals have in these forums the more likely it is that the firms in which they are employed will adopt new innovations.

“The more involvement individuals have in these forums the more likely it is that the firms in which they are employed will adopt new innovations.”

There is no consensus as to the optimal networking configuration.

“These studies consequently highlight that there is no consensus as to the optimal networking configuration.”

The utility of networks for enhancing the development of innovations and innovation diffusion is well-established.

“However more generally, while the utility of networks for enhancing the development of innovations and innovation diffusion is well-established there appears to be a need for more focussed research on the impact of networking on the development and diffusion of different forms of innovation (e.g.product, process and organisational).”

Networks are equally important for learning about innovative work practices that other organisations have developed or adopted.

“Networks are not only critical for accessing knowledge to create in-house innovations or for the diffusion of technological innovation but they are equally important for learning about innovative work practices that other organisations have developed or adopted (Erickson and Jacoby, 2003).”

• cites Erickson and Jacoby, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The nature of network configuration and its utility for innovation and competitiveness depends on the strategic requirements of individual firms.

“i) The nature of network configuration and its utility for innovation and competitiveness depends on the strategic requirements of individual firms (Ostgaard and Birley, 1994;Koch, 2003).”

• cites Ostgaard and Birley, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Koch, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The optimal design for a network is contingent on the actions that the structure seeks to facilitate.

“The nature of networks encountered in this review illustrate that the optimal design for a network is contingent on the actions that the structure seeks to facilitate.”

Firms with high levels of technical and commercial competence are less likely to see the value of forming network relationships with other firms.

“Firstly, firms with high levels of technical and commercial competence are less likely to see the value of forming network relationships with other firms.”

At an organisational level, the involvement of managers and lower level employees in professional, industry and cross-industry networks has been found to promote the diffusion of innovations.

“At an organisational level, the involvement of managers and lower level employees in professional, industry and cross-industry networks has been found to promote the diffusion of innovations (Robertson et al, 1996, Erickson andJacoby, 2003).”

• cites Robertson et al, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Erickson andJacoby, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Effective integration of suppliers helps manufacturers identify improvements necessary to remain competitive.

“Help manufacturers identify improvements that are necessary for them to remain competitive (Perez and Sanchez, 2002).”

• cites Perez and Sanchez, 2002Not checked — no full text of the source

Linking marketing and technical activities early in the innovation process enables products to be developed with full awareness of the customer's needs.

“Other studies have highlighted that the linking of marketing and technical activities early in the innovation process enables products to be developed with full awareness of the customer's needs (Bruce and Rodgus, 1991).”

• cites Bruce and Rodgus, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Customers actively engaged in the early stages of product innovation assist the development of ideas.

“Customers who are actively engaged in the early stages of product innovation will assist the development of ideas (Biemans, 1989).”

• cites Biemans, 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Conway (1995) found in his study of 35 successful innovations that customers were crucially important at the idea generation stage of the innovation process.

“Conway (1995) also found in his study of 35 successful innovations that customers were crucially important at the idea generation stage of the innovation process.”

• cites Conway (1995) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Firms that do not network possess much lower levels of competence in innovation.

“The studies highlighted (Germünden et al. 1992;Ritter and Germünden, 2003) also show that firms that do not network possess much lower levels of competence in innovation.”

• cites Germünden et al. 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ritter and Germünden, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The evidence shows that the innovation process, particularly complex and radical innovations benefit from engagement with a diverse range of partners which allows for the integration of different knowledge bases, behaviours and habits of thought.

“In conclusion, the evidence shows that the innovation process, particularly complex and radical innovations benefit from engagement with a diverse range of partners which allows for the integration of different knowledge bases, behaviours and habits of thought.”

Effective integration of suppliers creates easier access to supplier knowledge and expertise in the longer term.

“Create easier access to supplier knowledge and expertise in the longerterm (Conway, 1995).”

• cites Conway, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The types of partner firms engaged in networking appears to be related to the type of innovation occurring.

“The types of partner firms engaged in networking appears to be related to the type of innovation occurring.”

Businesses most often turn to customers when seeking network relationships on issues associated with innovation.

“Although much of the evidence points toward the important role of suppliers, co-suppliers and distributors in the innovation process it is to customers that businesses most often turn when seeking network relationships on issues associated with innovation (Ragatz et al. 1997).”

• cites Ragatz et al. 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Effective integration of suppliers enables firms to bring to bear wider expertise during the development process.

“Enable firms to bring to bear wider expertise during the development process (Romijn and Albu, 2002).”

• cites Romijn and Albu, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Nearly 50% of companies identified customer engagement as a precondition for innovation success.

“In Gemünden et al's (1992) study, for example, 75% of companies engaged customers in the innovation process and nearly 50% identified it as a precondition for innovation success.”

• cites Gemünden et al's (1992) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Involving suppliers in the buyer's development team was the largest single differentiator between the least and most successful innovation efforts.

“When examining management practices, involving suppliers in the buyer's development team, was the largest single differentiator between the least and most successful innovation efforts.”

Firms with strong supplier networks report higher levels of productivity than those with weak alliances over time.

“For example, firms having strong supplier networks report higher levels of productivity than those reporting weak alliances over time (Perez and Sanchez, 2002).”

• cites Perez and Sanchez, 2002Not checked — no full text of the source

Effective integration of suppliers leads to closer, more open supplier relationships.

“Lead to closer more open supplier relationships (Conway, 1995).”

• cites Conway, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Effective integration of suppliers leads to improved communication between partners.

“Lead to improved communication between the partners (Ritter and Germünden, 2003).”

• cites Ritter and Germünden, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In Gemünden et al's (1992) study, 75% of companies engaged customers in the innovation process.

“In Gemünden et al's (1992) study, for example, 75% of companies engaged customers in the innovation process and nearly 50% identified it as a precondition for innovation success.”

• cites Gemünden et al's (1992) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Effective integration of suppliers provides clearer focus on projects that require joint development.

“Provide clearer focus on the projects that require joint development (Ragatz et al. 1997).”

• cites Ragatz et al. 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Co-operation with Universities was 8.9% of firms in Kaufmann and Tödtling's work.

“For example, co-operation with Universities was 8.9% of firms in Kaufmann and Tödtling's work.”

• cites Kaufmann and Tödtling'sNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Advanced innovators and the development of radical innovations tends to demand more interaction with universities.

“Advanced innovators and the development of radical innovations tends to demand more interaction with universities.”

Customers are considered to be the most important partners during incremental innovation.

“Ragatz et al's (1997) work has also shown that customers are considered to be the most important partners during incremental innovation.”

• cites Ragatz et al's (1997) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Innovation is influenced by many actors both inside and outside the firm.

“These studies show that innovation is influenced by many actors both inside and outside the firm and that the most important partners are from the business sector, customers first (33.5% of firms) and suppliers second (21.9% of firms).”

Studies on partnering have shown that the willingness of firms to co-operate outside of these 'direct' relationships was rather limited.

“Studies on partnering have also shown that the willingness of firms to co-operate outside of these 'direct' relationships was rather limited.”

There are a range of identifiable factors promoting and preventing the establishment of business networks.

“Furthermore, there are a range of identifiable factors promoting and preventing the establishment of business networks.”

Effective integration of suppliers assists with improvements in the overall design effort.

“Assist with improvements in the overall design effort (Conway, 1995).”

• cites Conway, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Effective integration of suppliers in new product development processes has a significant impact on cost, quality, technology, speed and responsiveness of buying companies.

“Have a significant impact on cost, quality, technology, speed and responsiveness of buying companies (Ritter and Germünden, 2003).”

• cites Ritter and Germünden, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Effective integration of suppliers leads to higher levels of productivity and quality.

“Lead to higher levels of productivity and quality (Perez and Sanchez, 2002).”

• cites Perez and Sanchez, 2002Not checked — no full text of the source

Open and direct communication between companies is the critical success factor during supplier interactions in new product development processes.

“The degree of involvement of suppliers tends to depend on the nature of projects; however, open and direct communication between companies has been identified as the critical success factor during supplier interactions in new product development processes (Harryson, 1997;Ragatz et al. 1997;Lincoln et al. 1998;Perez and Sanchez, 2002).”

• cites Harryson, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ragatz et al. 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lincoln et al. 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The innovator learns from the customer the likely market potential of the product idea.

“The innovator learns from the customer the likely market potential of the product idea (Gemünden et al. 1992).”

• cites Gemünden et al. 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Networking can have a positive impact on innovation in all organisational contexts (i.e within established large organisations, small businesses and new entrepreneurial start-ups).

“Networking can have a positive impact on innovation in all organisational contexts (i.e within established large organisations, small businesses and new entrepreneurial start-ups).”

Customer involvement reduces the risks of innovation.

“Customer involvement reduces the risks of innovation (Gemünden et al. 1992;Ragatz et al. 1997).”

• cites Gemünden et al. 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ragatz et al. 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The quality of links between venture capital firms provides an important networking infrastructure for the commercialisation of innovation.

“The quality of links between venture capital firms, therefore, provides an important networking infrastructure for the commercialisation of innovation (Florida and Kenney, 1988a).”

• cites Florida and Kenney, 1988aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Most referral networks for informal finance are composed of family and friends.

“Haar et al.'s study (1988) shows that informal investment networks are particularly important during a firm's pre-start-up, start-up and early growth stages of development and that most referral networks for informal finance are composed of family and friends (Haar, Starr and MacMillan, 1988).”

• cites Haar, Starr and MacMillan, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Trust-based behaviour is an integral reason for inter-firm networks' longevity.

“Due to its positive impact on information flows, trust based behaviour characterised by implicit open-ended contracts is cited as a crucial factor in enhancing innovation through inter-firm collaboration (Hausler et al, 1994, Hoang andAntoncic, 2003) and an integral reason for inter-firm networks' longevity (Lipparini and Sobrero, 1994).”

• cites Lipparini and Sobrero, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Science partners contribute to innovation networks usually through informal-personal networks.

“The evidence on science partners shows that they contribute to innovation networks usually through informal-personal networks (Bower and Keogh, 1996) and that their contribution is important in enabling firms to develop thinking that steps outside of their particular business system (Liyanage, 1995).”

• cites Bower and Keogh, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Science partners' contribution is important in enabling firms to develop thinking that steps outside their particular business system.

“The evidence on science partners shows that they contribute to innovation networks usually through informal-personal networks (Bower and Keogh, 1996) and that their contribution is important in enabling firms to develop thinking that steps outside of their particular business system (Liyanage, 1995).”

• cites Liyanage, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Network ties are much more conducive for the exchange of information and knowledge across partners than market mechanisms.

“In general, network ties have been found to be much more conducive for the exchange of information and knowledge across partners than market mechanisms.”

Failure in Silicon Valley is linked to networks of small firms being unable to capitalise on the profits that can be made during the maturity stage of innovations.

“Evidence from Hobday's (1994) study shows that failure in Silicon Valley is linked to networks of small firms being unable to capitalise on the profits that can be made during the maturity stage of innovations (Hobday, 1994).”

• cites Hobday, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The type of interdependence characterising network relationships between firms is an important mediating variable in establishing appropriate governance mechanisms that promote innovation.

“The type of interdependence characterising the network relationships between firms was found to be an important mediating variable in terms of establishing the appropriate governance mechanisms that will promote innovation (Grandori, 1997).”

• cites Grandori, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The evidence in this study examining networking and innovation and the role of institutional mechanisms was insufficient to draw any useful conclusions.

“The evidence in this study examining networking and innovation and the role of institutional mechanisms was considered insufficient to draw any useful conclusions.”

The extent to which Science Parks promote business-to-business networks appears mixed, with some evidence for and against their capacity to promote networking.

“The extent to which Science Parks promote business-to-business networks appears to be mixed with some evidence for and against their capacity to promote networking.”

Well-developed finance networks attract further start-up activity, creating a self-reinforcing cycle.

“Such finance networks when well-developed attract further start-up activity creating a self-reinforcing cycle (Florida and Kenney, 1988b).”

• cites Florida and Kenney, 1988bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Managing informal and formal agreements while establishing trust means that the management of network relationships is inherently difficult.

“The evidence on the management of networks shows that managing informal and formal agreements, while establishing trust, means that the management of network relationships is inherently difficult (Biemans, 1991).”

• cites Biemans, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Events outside an industry, particularly government policy, can have a disproportionate effect leading to network failure.

“A number of other studies reviewed show that events outside of an industry, particularly government policy, can have a disproportionate effect leading to network failure (Bower, Crabtree and Keogh, 1997).”

• cites Bower, Crabtree and Keogh, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Venture capital firms can and do act as key brokers within technology and innovation networks, introducing key partners to prospective and current firms with whom they have invested.

“Venture capital firms can and do act as key brokers within technology and innovation networks, introducing key partners to prospective and current firms with whom they have invested (Bygrave, 1988).”

• cites Bygrave, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The degree to which firms learn about new opportunities is a function of the extent of their existing participation in networks.

“The degree to which firms learn about new opportunities is a function of the extent of their existing participation in networks (Powell, Koput and Smith-Doerr, 1996).”

• cites Powell, Koput and Smith-Doerr, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The role of third parties such as professional associations, trade associations and publicly funded bodies aimed at promoting innovation has a positive impact on the development of interorganisational networks and innovation.

“In general the role of third parties, such as professional associations, trade associations and publicly funded bodies specifically aimed at promoting innovation, such as technology transfer centres, have a positive impact on the development of interorganisational networks and innovation.”

Detailed evidence on how Science Parks might promote such networks appears absent from the literature.

“Detailed evidence on how Science Parks might promote such networks also appears to be absent from the literature (Phillimore, 1999).”

• cites Phillimore, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Science partners play an important role as independent network brokers and intermediaries within business networks.

“Whilst the review focused principally on business-to-business networks, science partners play an important role as independent network brokers and intermediaries within business networks and this was explored by the study.”

Informal investment networks are particularly important during a firm's pre-start-up, start-up and early growth stages of development.

“Haar et al.'s study (1988) shows that informal investment networks are particularly important during a firm's pre-start-up, start-up and early growth stages of development and that most referral networks for informal finance are composed of family and friends (Haar, Starr and MacMillan, 1988).”

• cites Haar et al.'s study (1988) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haar, Starr and MacMillan, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Learning from collaboration is a function of a firm's access to knowledge and its possession of the capabilities for utilising the relationships and knowledge established.

“Learning from collaboration was found in the empirical work reviewed to be a function of a firms' access to knowledge and its possession of the capabilities for utilising the relationships and knowledge established (DeSanctis, Glass and Ensing, 2002).”

• cites DeSanctis, Glass and Ensing, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A firm's networking competence and management is linked with its innovative capacity.

“The evidence reported links a firm's networking competence and management with its innovative capacity.”

Science partners act as brokers, intermediaries or neutral agents within networks, enabling different business systems to communicate by generating trust between different parties.

“Science partners also act as brokers, intermediaries or neutral agents within networks enabling different business systems to communicate by generating trust between different parties (Hausler, Hohn and Lutz, 1994).”

• cites Hausler, Hohn and Lutz, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Science partners tend to be most important where the innovation is relatively radical in orientation.

“The evidence demonstrates that science partners tend to be most important where the innovation is relatively radical in orientation (Ebadi and Utterback, 1984;Verspagen, 1999;Fritsch, 2001).”

• cites Ebadi and Utterback, 1984 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Verspagen, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fritsch, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

All networks have rules of engagement which constrain the partners' behaviour.

“All networks have rules of engagement which constrain the partners' behaviour (Boter and Holmquist, 1996).”

• cites Boter and Holmquist, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The characteristics of network ties are significantly shaped by modes of network governance and network management.

“The characteristics of network ties, however, are significantly shaped by modes of network governance and network management.”

Trust-based behaviour characterised by implicit open-ended contracts is a crucial factor in enhancing innovation through inter-firm collaboration.

“Due to its positive impact on information flows, trust based behaviour characterised by implicit open-ended contracts is cited as a crucial factor in enhancing innovation through inter-firm collaboration (Hausler et al, 1994, Hoang andAntoncic, 2003) and an integral reason for inter-firm networks' longevity (Lipparini and Sobrero, 1994).”

• cites Hausler et al, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hoang andAntoncic, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Dense networks have a positive impact on long-term innovation.

“The review has also highlighted that dense networks have a positive impact on long-term innovation.”

Love and Roper find no link between external networking and innovation performance in UK, German and Irish manufacturing investment in research and development.

“Love and Roper (2001) when modelling UK, German and Irish investment in research and development in manufacturing find no link between external networking and innovation performance.”

• cites Love and Roper (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There is a gap in the literature concerning the relationship between networking and different forms of innovation, such as process and organisational innovation.

“The first obvious gap in the literature concerns the relationship between networking and different forms of innovation, such as, process and organisational innovation.”

Networking configurations are contingent upon factors such as sector and type of innovation (radical vs. incremental; product vs. process).

“Whilst networking configurations are clearly contingent upon such factors as sector, type of innovation (radical vs. incremental; product vs. process), far more systematic research needs to be conducted in this area.”

Increasing uncertainty in the network's role or conditions can lead to only the development of weak ties.

“In a qualitative study of eight space research innovation projects Gales and Boynton (1992) show that increasing uncertainty in the network's role or conditions can lead to only the development of weak ties.”

• cites Gales and Boynton (1992) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

To date, research across disciplines has focused primarily on product innovations rather than process and organisational innovation.

“To date the focus of research across disciplines has been primarily on product innovations.”

Networks can inhibit innovation by encouraging anti-competitive behaviour.

“Although networks have been shown to contribute to innovation and competitiveness, this study has already demonstrated that they can also inhibit innovation by encouraging anti-competitive behaviour, suggesting that the ultimate value of a network is dependent upon what it is used for.”

Structural holes, where important partners are missing within networks, have a negative effect on innovation.

“Ahuja (2000) using a longitudinal study of the chemicals industry shows that 'structural holes', where important partners are missing within networks, also has a negative effect on innovation.”

• cites Ahuja (2000)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

If decisions guided by national policy that seek to implant clusters or networks into areas do not take into consideration local conditions, they are likely to fail.

“A study by Rychen and Zimmermann (2002) on the microelectronics cluster in the Marseilles area of France also highlighted that if decisions guided by national policy, that seek to implant clusters or networks into areas, do not take into consideration local conditions they are likely to fail.”

• cites Rychen and Zimmermann (2002) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Porter and Ketels' (2003) study provided little evidence to justify the claim that the UK underperforms key competitors in networking for innovation.

“Porter and Ketels' (2003) study concluded that the UK underperforms key competitors in this area but provided little in the way of evidence to justify the claim.”

• cites Porter and Ketels' (2003)Not checked — no full text of the source

Many scientific and technological breakthroughs result from numerous contributions of many actors working in networks.

“Many scientific and technological breakthroughs result from numerous contributions of many actors working in networks (Bougrain and Haudeville, 2002)”

• cites Bougrain and Haudeville, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The results confirm anecdotal evidence supporting the view that the evidence base has grown in recent years.

“Although it is possible that these results are a consequence of the method used, the results do confirm anecdotal evidence supporting the view that the evidence base has grown in recent years.”

The locus of innovation is no longer the individual or the firm but increasingly the network in which a firm is embedded.

“Indeed, the locus of innovation is no longer the individual or the firm but increasingly the network in which a firm is embedded (Powell, Koput and Smith-Doerr, 1996).”

• cites Powell, Koput and Smith-Doerr, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The standards necessary for a technology to function across different markets depend increasingly on networks of firms.

“and the standards necessary for a technology to function across different markets depend increasingly on networks of firms (Munir, 2002).”

• cites Munir, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Including suppliers in new product development innovation is valuable.

“The value of including suppliers in new product development innovation has been widely documented in the supply chain literature (Ragatz et al., 1997).”

• cites Ragatz et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

More risk-averse firms tend to link their innovation activities and networking relationships to customers because the perceived risk of failure is lower.

“More risk adverse firms, however, tend to link their innovation activities and networking relationships to customers because knowledge of clients' demands as the risk of failure for the innovating firm is perceived to be lower.”

Supply relationships are one of the most important networking arrangements affecting innovation performance and productivity.

“In summary, the supply chain literature on networking behaviour and innovation shows that supply relationships are one of the most important networking arrangements affecting innovation performance and productivity.”

There is a direct relationship between type of networking activity and innovation type (e.g. radical or incremental).

“This suggests a direct relationship between type of networking activity and innovation type (e.g.radical or incremental).”

Networking with business customers offers many benefits.

“In summary, the importance of networking with business customers is confirmed and is shown to offer many benefits.”

Where close collaboration already exists, incentive policies can promote the continuance of long-term relationships.

“Where close collaboration already exists, incentive policies can promote the continuance of long-term relationships.”

The ultimate value of a network is dependent upon what it is used for.

“Although networks have been shown to contribute to innovation and competitiveness, this study has already demonstrated that they can also inhibit innovation by encouraging anti-competitive behaviour, suggesting that the ultimate value of a network is dependent upon what it is used for.”

Networking may be an important facilitator in the innovation process.

“This indicates that networking may be an important facilitator in the innovation process but other things are more fundamental (e.g.skill base of labour markets and regulation) and drive innovation and competitiveness more generally.”

Firms that do not cooperate have access to a limited knowledge base over the longer term.

“Likewise firms that do not cooperate have access to a limited knowledge base over the longer term.”