The antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina: An overview
Abstract
Spirulina is a species of filamentous cyanobacteria that has long been used as a food supplement. In particular, Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima are the most important. Thanks to a high protein and vitamin content, Spirulina is used as a nutraceutical food supplement, although its other potential health benefits have attracted much attention. Oxidative stress and dysfunctional immunity cause many diseases in humans, including atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and hypertension. Thus, the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of these microalgae may play an important role in human health. Here, we discuss the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina in both animals and humans, along with the underlying mechanisms. In addition, its commercial and regulatory status in different countries is discussed as well. Spirulina activates cellular antioxidant enzymes, inhibits lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, scavenges free radicals, and increases the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Notably, there appears to be a threshold level above which Spirulina will taper off the antioxidant activity. Clinical trials show that Spirulina prevents skeletal muscle damage under conditions of exercise-induced oxidative stress and can stimulate the production of antibodies and up- or downregulate the expression of cytokine-encoding genes to induce immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory responses. The molecular mechanism(s) by which Spirulina induces these activities is unclear, but phycocyanin and β-carotene are important molecules. Moreover, Spirulina effectively regulates the ERK1/2, JNK, p38, and IκB pathways. This review provides new insight into the potential therapeutic applications of Spirulina and may provide new ideas for future studies.
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Phycocyanins, chlorophyll, β-carotene, and other carotenoids, vitamins and minerals in Arthrospira platensis mediate the antioxidant and protective effects.
“Phycocyanins, chlorophyll, β-carotene, and other carotenoids, vitamins and minerals in Arthrospira platensis also mediate the antioxidant and protective effects [30,124].”
From Application of Arthrospira platensis for Medicinal Purposes and the Food Industry: A Review of the Literature (2023) · cites this paper as [124]
Spirulina regulates key cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α and IFN-γ.
“Spirulina regulates key cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α and IFN-γ [9].”
From Beneficial Effects of Spirulina Consumption on Brain Health (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
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- Authors
- Wu, Q., Liu, L., Miron, A., Klímová, B., Wan, D., & Kuča, K.
- Affiliations
- Yangtze University (CN)
- Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy (RO)
- University of Hradec Králové (CZ)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- University Hospital Hradec Králové (CZ)
- Corresponding author
- Wu, Qinghua
- Kuča, Kamil
- Venue
- Archives of Toxicology
- Published
- 2016-06-03
- Volume
- 90
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1817-1840
- ISSN
- 0340-5761 (ISSN-L)
- 1432-0738
- OpenAlex
- W2415454315
- Cited by
- 655
- References
- 143
- Citations by year
- 2026: 70 · 2025: 91 · 2024: 87 · 2023: 94 · 2022: 95 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 2.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of Toxicology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Natural Science Foundation of China
- Yangtze University
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Seaweed-derived Bioactive Compounds
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Biochemistry › Antioxidant Activity and Oxidative Stress
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Keywords
- Spirulina, Spirulina platensis, Spirulina maxima, cyanobacteria, antioxidant activity, immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory activity, oxidative stress, nutraceuticals, superoxide dismutase, catalase, lipid peroxidation, phycocyanin, beta-carotene, cytokine gene expression, MAPK signaling, NF-κB signaling, food supplement regulation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Antioxidants, Clinical Trials as Topic, Humans, Immunologic Factors, Lipid Peroxidation, Oxidative Stress, Dietary Supplements, Spirulina
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