Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.

Engle, Randall W.; Tuholski, Stephen W.; Laughlin, James E.; Conway, Andrew R. A.

doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309

Cited by 3,078Cognitive Abilities and TestingNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesCognitive Functions and Memory

Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.

Engle, Randall W., Tuholski, Stephen W., Laughlin, James E., Conway, Andrew R. A.·1999·Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

DOI 10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309

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Abstract

A study was conducted in which 133 participants performed 11 memory tasks (some thought to reflect working memory and some thought to reflect short-term memory), 2 tests of general fluid intelligence, and the Verbal and Quantitative Scholastic Aptitude Tests. Structural equation modeling suggested that short-term and working memories reflect separate but highly related constructs and that many of the tasks used in the literature as working memory tasks reflect a common construct. Working memory shows a strong connection to fluid intelligence, but short-term memory does not. A theory of working memory capacity and general fluid intelligence is proposed: The authors argue that working memory capacity and fluid intelligence reflect the ability to keep a representation active, particularly in the face of interference and distraction. The authors also discuss the relationship of this capability to controlled attention, and the functions of the prefrontal cortex.

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Working memory is a likely causal predictor of global IQ, and age-related improvements in working memory lead directly to improvements in IQ.
“working memory is a (likely causal) predictor of global IQ101–103 and age-related improvements in working memory lead directly to improvements in IQ.103”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [103]
About half of the cases with visuospatial WM impairments in the ADHD-C population are not the result of visuospatial STM impairments, but are solely caused by impairments in their central executive.
“this finding suggests that about half of the cases with visuospatial WM impairments in the ADHD-C population are not the result of visuospatial STM impairments, but are solely caused by impairments in their central executive.”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [54]
WM capacity is regarded as the sum of both STM- and central executive capacity.
“Since WM capacity is regarded as the sum of both STM- and central executive capacity [54],”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [54]
Backward and complex span tasks load on a common span construct.
“prior latent-variable evidence indicates that they load on a common span construct (Engle et al., 1999; Redick & Lindsey, 2013)”
From The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Engle et al., 1999
Working memory capacity is strongly correlated with fluid intelligence.
“WM capacity, that is, the number of items WM can retain and manipulate, is strongly correlated with fluid intelligence (Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin, & Conway, 1999;Kane, Hambrick, & Conway, 2005)”
From Working memory training does not enhance older adults' cognitive skills: A comprehensive meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin, & Conway, 1999

Complex span tasks and the n-back are two commonly used task types for assessing individual differences in working memory capacity.
“Two types of tasks are frequently used to measure individual differences in working memory capacity-complex span tasks and the n-back”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Engle et al., 1999
According to the executive attention view, the attentional component primarily drives the predictive validity of working memory capacity measures.
“it is primarily the attentional component that drives the predictive validity of working memory capacity measures (e.g., Daneman & Carpenter, 1980;Engle et al., 1999).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Engle et al., 1999
Complex span tasks have often been used to measure working memory capacity in cognitive psychology.
“In the decades that followed, complex span tasks have been frequently used to measure working memory capacity in cognitive psychology (Engle et al., 1999;Kyllonen & Christal, 1990;Miyake et al., 2001).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Engle et al., 1999
A number of prior studies indicate that executive functions are central to the development of fluid intelligence in children and adults.
“A number of prior studies indicate that executive functions are central to the development of fluid intelligence in children (Fry & Hale, 1996; Kail, 2007) and adults (Engle, Tuholski, Lauglin, & Conway, 1999).”
From Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood (2011) · cites this paper as Engle, Tuholski, Lauglin, & Conway, 1999
In non-ADHD individuals, lower working memory ability is associated with poorer cognitive ability.
“Indeed, lower WM ability in non-ADHD individuals is associated with poorer cognitive ability (7) and increased mind-wandering away from challenging activities in real-life settings (8).”
From Attentional Control Activation Relates to Working Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [7]
The OSPAN task has demonstrated convergent validity with other measures of working memory capacity.
“The OSPAN task has demonstrated convergent validity by showing consistency with other measures of working memory capacity (Engle et al. 1999).”
From Sleep Problems Across Development: A Pathway to Adolescent Risk Taking Through Working Memory (2015) · cites this paper as Engle et al. 1999

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Self-citation

Authors: Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A.
Affiliations: Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
ORCID: Engle, Randall W.
Conway, Andrew R. A.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1999-09
Volume: 128
Issue: 3
Pages: 309-331
ISSN: 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
1939-2222
DOI: 10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309
OpenAlex: W2025264833
Cited by: 3,078
References: 84
Citations by year: 2026: 53 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 90 · 2023: 103 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 136 · 2020: 135 · 2019: 189 · 2018: 151 · 2017: 172 · 2016: 188 · 2015: 170 · 2014: 185 · 2013: 169 · 2012: 144
FWCI: 55.07
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01hd027490-03)
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01-HD27490-01A1)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: working memory, short-term memory, fluid intelligence, latent constructs, memory tasks, Scholastic Aptitude Test, working memory capacity, interference, attentional control, prefrontal cortex
MeSH terms: Adult, Attention, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Intelligence Tests, Male, Memory, Memory, Short-Term, Models, Psychological, Psychomotor Performance, Logistic Models

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Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.

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