Nutritional Strategies to Improve Post-exercise Recovery and Subsequent Exercise Performance: A Narrative Review

“Beyond RONS, exercise adaptations are also regulated by contraction-induced changes in mechanical strain, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) turnover, calcium flux, redox balance, and intracellular oxygen pressure [215].”

“In addition, managing fatigue and training load is essential for athletes aiming to achieve peak performance and prevent overtraining [1–3].”

“IMTG stores are used as an energy source mainly during early stages of endurance exercise, with the reliance on them diminishing as exercise duration extends in favor of plasma-derived substrate oxidation [175].”

“For example, two human studies showing a blunting of some markers of training adaptations also had the largest sample sizes [211, 212], whereas a study showing no statistical effect of vitamin C on increases in V O 2max reported increases of 10.8% in the supplementation group ( n = 5) and an…”

“Although some muscle glycogen can be repleted in the absence of food ingestion [11], contemporary guidelines recommend ingesting 1–1.2 g·kg −1 ⋅ h −1 of carbohydrate in the initial 4-h post-exercise window [12].”

“While carbohydrate ingestion during exercise does not substantially affect muscle glycogen utilization [48, 49], it can reduce or even completely suppress liver glycogen breakdown, thereby improving subsequent recovery [49, 50].”

“Complete replenishment of muscle glycogen stores typically unfolds over a 24–36 h period post-exercise, provided that 7–12 g·kg −1 carbohydrate are consumed per day [15–18].”

“The optimal dose of protein for post-exercise recovery has been extensively studied, with research suggesting that 20–40 g of high-quality protein consumed after exercise maximizes MPS rates for several hours (i.e., 3–4 h), the exact dose dependent on muscle mass involved during exercise [56–58].”

“…212], whereas a study showing no statistical effect of vitamin C on increases in V O 2max reported increases of 10.8% in the supplementation group ( n = 5) and an increase of 22% in the group ( n = 9) without supplementation (Cohen’s d = − 1.1, [95% confidence interval (CI) − 2.2, 0.04]) [213].”

“…150% body mass loss from exercise Include electrolytes if food is not also consumed Can assess hydration status through urine color, frequency, and volume or by measuring urine specific gravity and osmolality in the recommendations—a common problem within the sports science literature [217].”

“Nutritional strategies play a pivotal role in the recovery process by replenishing energy stores, maintaining energy availability [4], and promoting repair mechanisms and adaptive responses to exercise [5, 6].”

“Free radicals produced via aerobic metabolism contribute both to exercise-induced fatigue as well as the adaptive response to exercise [209].”

“Following the initial protein-based meal after exercise, it is advised that subsequent protein-rich meals follow at 3–4 h intervals [55, 66, 67].”

“Adapted from [13, 21, 24, 27, 28].”

“Creatine (α-methyl-guanidinoacetic acid) is a widely used nutritional supplement that has been extensively researched over the past two decades [142].”

“…exercise in a hot or humid environment, athletes may lose more than 2 L of sweat per hour, accompanied by substantial electrolyte, extracellular, and intracellular water loss that may negatively affect processes such as the rate of post-exercise glycogen and muscle protein resynthesis [44, 99].”

“Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is one of the most extensively researched performance-enhancing supplements and is known to enhance exercise performance when consumed before [157] and during prolonged exercise [158].”

“For example, two human studies showing a blunting of some markers of training adaptations also had the largest sample sizes [211, 212], whereas a study showing no statistical effect of vitamin C on increases in V O 2max reported increases of 10.8% in the supplementation group ( n = 5) and an…”

“…and provides some more mechanistical evidence for these findings, namely showing increased muscle glycogen synthase activity with a mixture of isomers ( cis -9 trans -11, cis -10 trans -12), but not with cis -9 trans -11 isomer, suggesting physiological effects are likely isomer-specific [186].”

“It is important to note that excessive caffeine intake can lead to adverse effects, including tachycardia, anxiety, headaches, gastrointestinal issues, and a heightened risk of overnight insomnia [172, 173].”

“…acid (DHA) are types of fats that have reported anti-inflammatory properties and the capacity for reducing EIMD and enhancing muscle function following exercise [182], providing additional rationale for their recommended use in aiding exercise recovery in a dose-and duration-dependent manner [183].”

“IMTG are also utilized as a fuel source in the post-exercise recovery window [176].”

“Given that creatine metabolism exhibits sex-specific differences [156], there is a need for a better understanding of creatine supplementation’s effects across sex and levels of athletic training.”

“Protein ingestion after exercise is considered one of the pillars of recovery owing to its role in promoting muscle protein synthesis (MPS), reducing muscle protein break-down, and facilitating muscle repair and adaptation following exercise-induced damage [51–54].”

“Nevertheless, it is commonly recommended to rapidly increase amino acid availability following exercise to maximize MPS rates and promote muscle recovery [55, 64], with numerous studies demonstrating positive effects on recovery in endurance athletes [62, 63, 65].”

“In summary, although high-GI carbohydrate ingestion leads to higher glycogen content after 24 h of recovery [27], during very short recovery periods the total carbohydrate dose appears more important than the GI.”

“Endurance athletes are recommended to consume ~ 1.2–1.8 g·kg –1 of high-quality protein [69–72], while those engaged in power-based sports are advised to ingest 1.7–2.2 g·kg –1 [73].”

“From a performance perspective, several studies have demonstrated that co-ingesting glucose and fructose-based carbohydrates can enhance the recovery of exercise capacity [29–32].”

“Exercising in a dehydrated state is well-established to negatively affect both performance and health [97, 98].”

“…tart cherry [191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence surrounding tart cherry, beetroot, pomegranate, and vitamin D…”

“…caffeine alongside carbohydrates during the initial post-exercise recovery hours may benefit athletes who have multiple competitions in a single day or who employ training sessions with low carbohydrate availability, such as the “sleep low, train low” thought to maximize training adaptations [171].”

“Considering the extended fasting period during sleep, a pre-sleep protein dose of ≥ 40 g has been recommended to sustain MPS rates and minimize overnight muscle protein breakdown [75, 76].”

“While carbohydrate ingestion during exercise does not substantially affect muscle glycogen utilization [48, 49], it can reduce or even completely suppress liver glycogen breakdown, thereby improving subsequent recovery [49, 50].”

“These benefits are likely due to antioxidant effects and have been observed in both trained and untrained populations [203].”

“Following the initial protein-based meal after exercise, it is advised that subsequent protein-rich meals follow at 3–4 h intervals [55, 66, 67].”

“Nevertheless, co-ingestion of glucose with fructose is preferred owing to reduced gastrointestinal complaints and the beneficial effect on liver glycogen replenishment, as discussed below [18, 22, 26] (Supplementary Material 1).”

“Fat is primarily stored as triacylglycerol (TG) in adipose tissue, with smaller amounts inside muscle fibers (intramyocel-lular TG; IMTG) [174].”

“This finding aligns with subsequent studies comparing glucose, fructose, and sucrose in 1 g·kg –1 ⋅ h –1 doses during a 4–6 h post-exercise timeframe [19, 23].”

“Attempts to correct fluid loss induced by exercise should consider the sweat rate, which can vary from 0 to over 2 L·h ⁻ 1 , depending on factors such as environmental conditions, intensity, duration, genetics, fitness level, acclimatization to the environment, and clothing [104, 105].”

“For example, daily water and sodium losses can vary significantly and be in the range of 4–10 L and 3.5–7.0 g, respectively, in active athletes under heat stress; thus, both need to be replaced to re-establish normal total body water (i.e., achieve euhydration) [106].”

“The optimal dose of protein for post-exercise recovery has been extensively studied, with research suggesting that 20–40 g of high-quality protein consumed after exercise maximizes MPS rates for several hours (i.e., 3–4 h), the exact dose dependent on muscle mass involved during exercise [56–58].”

“Nutritional strategies play a pivotal role in the recovery process by replenishing energy stores, maintaining energy availability [4], and promoting repair mechanisms and adaptive responses to exercise [5, 6].”

“It may also mitigate post-exercise inflammation, reducing markers of muscle damage and soreness [146].”

“Plant-based proteins such as soy, rice, and pea protein, while effective [82], generally require higher doses (25–40 g) to match the leucine threshold necessary for robust MPS stimulation owing to lower essential amino acid content [53, 74, 83].”

“This is important because exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) can impede muscle glycogen replenishment for up to 10 days [147], suggesting that creatine could facilitate glycogen resynthesis by alleviating EIMD.”

“Amounts of essential amino acids, and especially leucine content, in protein sources seem to be the strongest predictor of MPS [79, 80].”

“Exercising in a dehydrated state is well-established to negatively affect both performance and health [97, 98].”

“…protein kinase (AMPK), possibly through enhanced activation of the Ca 2+ -calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) and the phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), which could collectively induce translocation of GLUT4 to the cell membrane and promote muscle glucose uptake [162, 163].”

“However, their availability does not seem to play a role in performance as interventions aimed at increasing IMTG have resulted in either no differences [177] or worsened [178] performance in exercise trials lasting 20–140 min.”

“Despite reductions in muscle damage and/or inflammation, improvements in performance are not always observed [191, 192].”

“Antioxidants have the potential to improve recovery and acute performance by reducing RONS, which impair muscle contractile force primarily through alterations in myofibrillar calcium sensitivity [204].”

“…[191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence surrounding tart cherry, beetroot, pomegranate, and vitamin D [202, 203].”

“Creatine may enhance the abundance of glucose transporter (GLUT) 4, facilitating greater glucose uptake into muscle cells [145].”

“In addition, creatine supplementation may positively affect muscle glycogen storage in the days following glycogen-depleting exercise [144].”

“…supplements may be effective in reducing EIMD, including fruit extracts such as tart cherry [191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the…”

“…that, regardless of beverage choice, similar recovery fluid balance [117, 118] and subsequent exercise performance [118] can be achieved using milk-based formulations, sports drinks, or water along with different solid meals in both males and females, despite varying dietary behaviors [117–119].”

“Liver glycogen stores are depleted by approximately 40–60% during moderate to high-intensity exercise sessions that extend beyond 90 min without carbohydrate ingestion [23].”

“While the importance of immediate post-exercise protein intake remains debated in literature [59–61], this controversy largely arises from differences in study designs and varying recovery conditions [62, 63].”

“Protein ingestion after exercise is considered one of the pillars of recovery owing to its role in promoting muscle protein synthesis (MPS), reducing muscle protein break-down, and facilitating muscle repair and adaptation following exercise-induced damage [51–54].”

“Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ) supplementation before exercise is widely recognized for enhancing extracellular buffering capacity when administered at doses of 0.2–0.4 g·kg ⁻ 1 body mass (BM) 1–3 h prior to activity [120].”

“…acid (DHA) are types of fats that have reported anti-inflammatory properties and the capacity for reducing EIMD and enhancing muscle function following exercise [182], providing additional rationale for their recommended use in aiding exercise recovery in a dose-and duration-dependent manner [183].”

“Muscle glycogen demonstrates a pronounced affinity for restoration during the initial 2 h window following exercise, a process that notably occurs independent of insulin’s influence [10].”

“Nutritional strategies play a pivotal role in the recovery process by replenishing energy stores, maintaining energy availability [4], and promoting repair mechanisms and adaptive responses to exercise [5, 6].”

“…atom to a free radical [205], whereas polyphenols stimulate stress-related cell signaling pathways and increase the expression of genes encoding proteins, such as nuclear respiratory factor 2 (NRF2), as well as pathways in skeletal muscle, leading to increased mitochondrial biogenesis [206].”

“Recent evidence suggests caffeine could also positively affect post-exercise recovery owing to its ability to decrease muscle soreness [159] and, when paired with carbohydrates, accelerate muscle glycogen replenishment [160].”

“However, their availability does not seem to play a role in performance as interventions aimed at increasing IMTG have resulted in either no differences [177] or worsened [178] performance in exercise trials lasting 20–140 min.”

“It is important to note that excessive caffeine intake can lead to adverse effects, including tachycardia, anxiety, headaches, gastrointestinal issues, and a heightened risk of overnight insomnia [172, 173].”

“Vita-mins C and E share a common mechanism of donating a hydrogen atom to a free radical [205], whereas polyphenols stimulate stress-related cell signaling pathways and increase the expression of genes encoding proteins, such as nuclear respiratory factor 2 (NRF2), as well as pathways in skeletal…”

“…recovery phase is likely more beneficial than other carbohydrate sources, given its superior efficacy in faster gastrointestinal absorption and glycogen stores and its association with reduced gastrointestinal discomfort when an optimal carbohydrate dosage of 1–1.2 g·kg −1 ⋅ h −1 is consumed [18].”

“Moreover, Van Loon et al. [151] observed an 18% increase in muscle glycogen content following 5 days of creatine loading (20 g·day –1 ), underscoring a notable glycogen storage boost without significant impacts on fasting plasma insulin levels or GLUT-4 mRNA/protein content.”

“However, even a 1% improvement can be critical in elite sports, potentially making the difference between finishing fourth and securing a podium position in Olympic competitions [88].”

“Although consuming dietary fat in the post-exercise meal can prolong gastric emptying times [187], in the context of adequate carbohydrate ingestion, glycogen resynthesis is not influenced by the addition of fat and protein in the 3-h [188] or 24-h [189] post-exercise period.”

“…be recommended as it may confer additional benefits, including positive nitrogen balance leading to increased whole-body muscle protein synthesis [93], increased protein content related to mitochondrial biogenesis [94], reduced muscle damage markers [95], and accelerated post-exercise…”

“Although consuming dietary fat in the post-exercise meal can prolong gastric emptying times [187], in the context of adequate carbohydrate ingestion, glycogen resynthesis is not influenced by the addition of fat and protein in the 3-h [188] or 24-h [189] post-exercise period.”

“Despite reductions in muscle damage and/or inflammation, improvements in performance are not always observed [191, 192].”

“Although carbohydrate intake is the cornerstone of glycogen resynthesis, concomitant intake of protein has been suggested to confer additional benefits, primarily owing to the insulinotropic effects of certain amino acids to reduce muscle protein breakdown [84].”

“…[191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence surrounding tart cherry, beetroot, pomegranate, and vitamin D [202, 203].”

“…[191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence surrounding tart cherry, beetroot, pomegranate, and vitamin D [202, 203].”

“While carbohydrate ingestion during exercise does not substantially affect muscle glycogen utilization [48, 49], it can reduce or even completely suppress liver glycogen breakdown, thereby improving subsequent recovery [49, 50].”

“Attempts to correct fluid loss induced by exercise should consider the sweat rate, which can vary from 0 to over 2 L·h ⁻ 1 , depending on factors such as environmental conditions, intensity, duration, genetics, fitness level, acclimatization to the environment, and clothing [104, 105].”

“…to rise and is influenced by factors such as the dosage and timing of ingestion [134], supplement form (i.e., solution versus capsules) [123, 135], potential adverse effects, genetic factors related to hydrogen ion (H + ) transporters, the individual’s training status, and exercise type [136].”

“It is well-documented that creatine supplementation can enhance adaptations to resistance training, including increases in strength, power, and muscular endurance [143].”

“Following the initial protein-based meal after exercise, it is advised that subsequent protein-rich meals follow at 3–4 h intervals [55, 66, 67].”

“…threshold depends on the time needed for circulating HCO 3 ⁻ levels to rise and is influenced by factors such as the dosage and timing of ingestion [134], supplement form (i.e., solution versus capsules) [123, 135], potential adverse effects, genetic factors related to hydrogen ion (H + )…”

“Adapted from [13, 21, 24, 27, 28].”

“Furthermore, as an osmotically active compound, creatine can increase intracellular fluid volume [148], which may be beneficial because cell swelling has been identified as a potent stimulus for muscle glycogen synthesis [149].”

“In addition, research by Nelson et al. [152] demonstrated that a moderate carbohydrate intake post-creatine loading could enhance muscle glycogen stores by 53% compared with a high-carbohydrate diet alone, further indicating the efficacy of creatine supplementation in enhancing glycogen storage,…”

“…endurance capability following high-GI carbohydrate consumption [39], others found no effect [40–42] or even superior performance with low-GI carbohydrate intake, attributed to improved glucose stability and increased fat oxidation due to lower insulin activity [43] (Supplementary Material 1).”

“Therefore, implementing nutritional strategies that reduce liver glycogen utilization during exercise and/or promote its replenishment post-exercise may be as imperative as strategies for muscle glycogen replenishment [8, 47].”

“Replenishing glycogen stores through immediate post-exercise carbohydrate intake is crucial for recovery, especially when athletes need to be fully prepared for another training session or competition within 24 h [7–9].”

“Considering the extended fasting period during sleep, a pre-sleep protein dose of ≥ 40 g has been recommended to sustain MPS rates and minimize overnight muscle protein breakdown [75, 76].”

“…3 ⁻ levels to rise and is influenced by factors such as the dosage and timing of ingestion [134], supplement form (i.e., solution versus capsules) [123, 135], potential adverse effects, genetic factors related to hydrogen ion (H + ) transporters, the individual’s training status, and exercise…”

“Although consuming dietary fat in the post-exercise meal can prolong gastric emptying times [187], in the context of adequate carbohydrate ingestion, glycogen resynthesis is not influenced by the addition of fat and protein in the 3-h [188] or 24-h [189] post-exercise period.”

“Although a low-fat diet can attenuate repletion of IMTG following exercise [180], post-exercise plasma fatty acid availability is increased independently of post-exercise dietary ingestion, mainly due to the hormonal response that stimulates adipose tissue lipolysis and skeletal muscle blood flow…”

“Initial studies indicated that NaHCO 3 ingestion before high-intensity exercise attenuated post-exercise blood acid–base imbalance during a 15-min passive recovery period compared with placebo [126] and facilitated a faster restoration of acid–base balance [127].”

“…repletion of IMTG following exercise [180], post-exercise plasma fatty acid availability is increased independently of post-exercise dietary ingestion, mainly due to the hormonal response that stimulates adipose tissue lipolysis and skeletal muscle blood flow during the recovery period [181].”

“Recent evidence suggests caffeine could also positively affect post-exercise recovery owing to its ability to decrease muscle soreness [159] and, when paired with carbohydrates, accelerate muscle glycogen replenishment [160].”

“Plant-based proteins such as soy, rice, and pea protein, while effective [82], generally require higher doses (25–40 g) to match the leucine threshold necessary for robust MPS stimulation owing to lower essential amino acid content [53, 74, 83].”

“Therefore, implementing nutritional strategies that reduce liver glycogen utilization during exercise and/or promote its replenishment post-exercise may be as imperative as strategies for muscle glycogen replenishment [8, 47].”

“However, both studies used carbohydrate doses below the optimal 1.2 g·kg ⁻ 1 ·h ⁻ 1 recommended for maximal glycogen resynthesis [160, 164].”

“Despite attenuations in markers of metabolic and/or mitochondrial adaptations, no impact on exercise performance outcomes has been observed in human studies when supplementing with vitamins C and/or E during controlled endurance training [210].”

“Other research has shown that creatine supplementation, combined with a high carbohydrate diet, led to 82% greater glycogen resynthesis within 24 h following exhaustive exercise compared with placebo [150].”

“Rustad et al. [89] reported that co-ingesting carbohydrate (0.8 g·kg ⁻ 1 ·h ⁻ 1 ) and protein (0.4 g·kg ⁻ 1 ·h ⁻ 1 ) during the first 2 h of an 18 h of recovery from strenuous cycling exercise led to ~ 14 min longer subsequent exercise capacity compared with carbohydrate intake alone (1.2 g·kg −1…”

“…fruit extracts such as tart cherry [191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence surrounding tart cherry, beetroot,…”

“There is currently no evidence to recommend consuming more than 1.2 g·kg −1 ⋅ h −1 of carbohydrates, regardless of type [22, 25].”

“From a performance perspective, several studies have demonstrated that co-ingesting glucose and fructose-based carbohydrates can enhance the recovery of exercise capacity [29–32].”

“…as it may confer additional benefits, including positive nitrogen balance leading to increased whole-body muscle protein synthesis [93], increased protein content related to mitochondrial biogenesis [94], reduced muscle damage markers [95], and accelerated post-exercise rehydration [96].”

“The performance enhancements observed with NaHCO 3 supplementation are attributed to increased extracellular buffering capacity, lowered extracellular potassium (K + ) levels, elevated sodium (Na + ) levels before exercise, and a potential reduction in cellular oxidative stress responses [122–124].”

“Therefore, rehydration strategies between exercise bouts recommend that athletes drink fluids equivalent to 125–150% of their body mass lost during exercise [107, 108].”

“…as it may confer additional benefits, including positive nitrogen balance leading to increased whole-body muscle protein synthesis [93], increased protein content related to mitochondrial biogenesis [94], reduced muscle damage markers [95], and accelerated post-exercise rehydration [96].”

“Taken together, combining protein with carbohydrates during recovery periods shorter than 24 h likely has a small, but positive, effect on performance, ranging from 0.6 to 1.6% [87].”

“…since glucose and fructose are absorbed via distinct intestinal transporters, it was hypothesized that their combined ingestion could optimize carbohydrate absorption, minimize gastrointestinal discomfort, and potentially maximize muscle glycogen replenishment compared with glucose alone [21].”

“…be effective in reducing EIMD, including fruit extracts such as tart cherry [191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence…”

“Research has demonstrated that the rate of liver glycogen resynthesis within the initial 2-h post-exercise period is 30–50% lower than during the subsequent 3–5 h [16].”

“Nevertheless, it is commonly recommended to rapidly increase amino acid availability following exercise to maximize MPS rates and promote muscle recovery [55, 64], with numerous studies demonstrating positive effects on recovery in endurance athletes [62, 63, 65].”

“…levels to rise and is influenced by factors such as the dosage and timing of ingestion [134], supplement form (i.e., solution versus capsules) [123, 135], potential adverse effects, genetic factors related to hydrogen ion (H + ) transporters, the individual’s training status, and exercise type…”

“This strategy can improve high-intensity exercise performance lasting approximately 30 s to 10 min [121].”

“Plant-based proteins such as soy, rice, and pea protein, while effective [82], generally require higher doses (25–40 g) to match the leucine threshold necessary for robust MPS stimulation owing to lower essential amino acid content [53, 74, 83].”

“Endurance athletes are recommended to consume ~ 1.2–1.8 g·kg –1 of high-quality protein [69–72], while those engaged in power-based sports are advised to ingest 1.7–2.2 g·kg –1 [73].”

“Plant-based proteins such as soy, rice, and pea protein, while effective [82], generally require higher doses (25–40 g) to match the leucine threshold necessary for robust MPS stimulation owing to lower essential amino acid content [53, 74, 83].”

“Amounts of essential amino acids, and especially leucine content, in protein sources seem to be the strongest predictor of MPS [79, 80].”

“Rehydration is particularly important before subsequent training or competition when limited time is available between exercise bouts in environmentally challenging conditions [101, 102].”

“The liver plays a pivotal role in metabolic regulation during exercise by controlling blood glucose levels through glycogen storage and mobilizing non-carbohydrate sources via gluconeogenesis [26, 46].”

“The authors concluded that an optimal carbohydrate dose of 1.2 g·kg ⁻ 1 ·h ⁻ 1 is sufficient to maximize glycogen replenishment rates, with no additional benefits from caffeine co-ingestion [165].”

“Several supplements may be effective in reducing EIMD, including fruit extracts such as tart cherry [191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with…”

“Initial studies indicated that NaHCO 3 ingestion before high-intensity exercise attenuated post-exercise blood acid–base imbalance during a 15-min passive recovery period compared with placebo [126] and facilitated a faster restoration of acid–base balance [127].”

“Conversely, Andrea-Souza et al. [168] did not observe significant performance enhancements in soccer players following co-ingestion of caffeine (6 mg·kg ⁻ 1 ) and carbohydrates (1.2 g·kg ⁻ 1 ·h ⁻ 1 ), possibly owing to insufficient glycogen depletion in the testing protocol.”

“Loureiro et al. [161] proposed that caffeine might enhance muscle glycogen synthesis by activating molecular pathways related to either energy sensing or muscle contraction.”

“Dietary sources include dairy and meat from rumi-nant animals, which are primarily found as the cis -9 trans -11 isomer; however, synthetic isomers have also been studied [185].”

“The lack of performance enhancement in some studies may be due to intraindividual variability in the time required to reach peak HCO ₃ ⁻ levels and the occurrence of gastrointestinal discomfort [127, 132, 133].”

“…glycemic index, GLu glucose one study found enhanced endurance capability following high-GI carbohydrate consumption [39], others found no effect [40–42] or even superior performance with low-GI carbohydrate intake, attributed to improved glucose stability and increased fat oxidation due to…”

“Moreover, caffeine ingestion alone is sufficient to enhance performance in subsequent sessions for shorter, high-intensity exercises such as wrestling [170] (Supplementary Material 9).”

“This finding was confirmed by Trommelen et al. [22], who reported that co-ingesting glucose polymers with fructose or sucrose at a higher dose (1.5 g·kg –1 ⋅ h –1 ) did not further augment muscle glycogen replenishment during a 5-h recovery window, despite a notable reduction in gastrointestinal…”

“However, an individual’s training status may influence creatine’s efficacy regarding glycogen storage, as two studies focusing on highly trained athletes did not show significant enhancements in muscle glycogen levels following creatine supplementation [153, 154].”

“Therefore, rehydration strategies between exercise bouts recommend that athletes drink fluids equivalent to 125–150% of their body mass lost during exercise [107, 108].”

“For instance, Taylor et al. [167] found that caffeine (6 mg·kg –1 ) combined with carbohydrate (1.2 g·kg –1 ·h –1 glucose) improved exercise capacity in an intermittent shuttle run test compared with carbohydrate alone (~ 48 min versus 32 min).”

“However, this benefit appears to occur only when protein is added to a suboptimal amount of carbohydrate (e.g., 0.3 g·kg ⁻ 1 ·h ⁻ 1 protein and 0.9 g·kg −1 ⋅ h −1 carbohydrate) [85].”

“Early research demonstrated that ingestion of glucose alone increases muscle glycogen levels significantly more than fructose alone [19, 20].”

“Therefore, athletes can include protein and high-quality fat in the post-exercise window without sacrificing muscle glycogen synthesis, bearing in mind that very high-fat intakes in the post-exercise window may attenuate some, but not all, signaling markers [190].”

“While the importance of immediate post-exercise protein intake remains debated in literature [59–61], this controversy largely arises from differences in study designs and varying recovery conditions [62, 63].”

“Therefore, water alone may not be the best choice to maximize subsequent exercise capacity [92, 116], especially considering that other nutrients are also essential for recovery.”

“In addition, ingesting 0.3 g·kg ⁻ 1 BM of NaHCO ₃ 180 min before exercise led to ~ 3.8% improvement in subsequent performance during four repeats of 2 × 4 km cycling time trials with 40 min passive recovery conducted under hypoxic conditions as compared with placebo [128].”

“In addition, administering NaHCO 3 before exercise can promote acid–base restoration and improve subsequent exercise performance, particularly when the recovery period between sessions is less than 40 min [141].”

“Taken together, administration of NaHCO 3 after exercise can expedite the restoration of acid–base equilibrium following intense physical activity, potentially improving performance during subsequent exercise sessions if an adequate recovery period of 30–90 min is provided [124, 129, 137].”

“While the importance of immediate post-exercise protein intake remains debated in literature [59–61], this controversy largely arises from differences in study designs and varying recovery conditions [62, 63].”

“As an alternative to high-dose antioxidant supplementation, whole fruits and fruit-derived juices or extracts can also provide a good source of antioxidants as well as micronutrients [216].”

“Adapted from Gough et al. [129] muscle glycogen resynthesis, finding that the addition of caffeine to milk resulted in approximately 153% higher rates of muscle glycogen synthesis compared with milk alone [166] (Supplementary Material 8).”

“For example, Maunder et al. [33] compared the effects of 90 g of maltodextrin mixed with either glucose or fructose (in a 1.5:1 ratio) following a glycogen-depleting run.”

“However, studies have observed no differences in fluid retention between post-exercise consumption of oral rehydration solutions and sports drinks following exercise-induced dehydration, even in hot conditions [111, 112] or in subsequent endurance performance [113].”

“…muscle glycogen stores, reporting that co-ingestion of carbohydrate (0.86 g·kg −1 ⋅ h − 1) with protein (0.27 g·kg −1 ⋅ h −1 ) did not increase muscle glycogen re-synthesis more than carbohydrate per se when ingested at 0.95 g·kg −1 ⋅ h −1 during short-term post-exercise recovery (≤ 8 h) [86].”

“For athletes with longer recovery periods (> 90 min) who are more susceptible to severe gastrointestinal symptoms, new forms of NaHCO ₃ such as enteric-coated, delayed-release capsules and mini-tablet NaHCO ₃ hydrogels could be considered as they may mitigate gastrointestinal discomfort [138–140].”

“…than subsequent exercise performance, quercetin supplementation for 7 days (1 g ⋅ day −1 ) improved time to exhaustion at 75% maximal oxygen consumption ( V O 2max) by 21.4% following a 3-h recovery period after 60 min of cycling compared with a placebo and also reduced oxidative stress [207].”

“Therefore, re-establishing water and electrolyte balance during the post-exercise recovery period is important [100].”

“In contrast, 8 weeks of green tea extract supplementation (500 mg ⋅ day −1 ) had no effect on glycogen resynthesis, despite increases in postexercise fat oxidation and exercise-induced muscle GLUT4 protein content [208].”

“…[191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence surrounding tart cherry, beetroot, pomegranate, and vitamin D [202, 203].”

“However, studies have observed no differences in fluid retention between post-exercise consumption of oral rehydration solutions and sports drinks following exercise-induced dehydration, even in hot conditions [111, 112] or in subsequent endurance performance [113].”

“…index, GLu glucose one study found enhanced endurance capability following high-GI carbohydrate consumption [39], others found no effect [40–42] or even superior performance with low-GI carbohydrate intake, attributed to improved glucose stability and increased fat oxidation due to lower…”

“For athletes with longer recovery periods (> 90 min) who are more susceptible to severe gastrointestinal symptoms, new forms of NaHCO ₃ such as enteric-coated, delayed-release capsules and mini-tablet NaHCO ₃ hydrogels could be considered as they may mitigate gastrointestinal discomfort [138–140].”

“Another mechanism that may explain the ergogenic effect of post-exercise NaHCO 3 ingestion is its hyperhydration effect, leading to an ~ 8% increase in blood volume through increased sodium availability in the blood [125].”

“However, studies have observed no differences in fluid retention between post-exercise consumption of oral rehydration solutions and sports drinks following exercise-induced dehydration, even in hot conditions [111, 112] or in subsequent endurance performance [113].”

“…most commonly studied in the context of body composition, humans have also shown an increase in post-exercise muscle GLUT4 protein expression and post-exercise muscle glycogen resynthesis rates following 8 weeks of 3.8 g ⋅ day −1 of trans -10 cis -12 and cis -9 trans -11 CLA supplementation [184].”

“The mechanism behind this may be related to delayed gastric emptying and increased plasma osmolality, which reduces urine output and enhances fluid retention [117] (Supplementary Material 4, 5).”

“Endurance athletes are recommended to consume ~ 1.2–1.8 g·kg –1 of high-quality protein [69–72], while those engaged in power-based sports are advised to ingest 1.7–2.2 g·kg –1 [73].”

“Taken together, administration of NaHCO 3 after exercise can expedite the restoration of acid–base equilibrium following intense physical activity, potentially improving performance during subsequent exercise sessions if an adequate recovery period of 30–90 min is provided [124, 129, 137].”

“Milk-based beverages have also led to greater exercise capacity in subsequent exercise performance when compared with both noncaloric and energy-matched beverages, likely due to simultaneously increasing glycogen resynthesis and stimulating muscle protein synthesis [114].”

“Similarly, Gray et al. [34] reported that consuming glucose and fructose during the initial 4 h and again at 15 h of recovery from exhaustive exercise resulted in a notable increase in cycling performance capacity, ~ 27% longer compared with glucose alone.”

“…trial performance after a glycogen-depleting exercise, participants ingested 1.2 g·kg −1 ·h −1 of a glucose–fructose mix or glucose combined with maltodextrin over a 4-h recovery period before undertaking 1 h of moderate-intensity steady state cycling followed by a ~ 40-min cycling time trial [35].”

“…protein kinase (AMPK), possibly through enhanced activation of the Ca 2+ -calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) and the phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), which could collectively induce translocation of GLUT4 to the cell membrane and promote muscle glucose uptake [162, 163].”

“Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is one of the most extensively researched performance-enhancing supplements and is known to enhance exercise performance when consumed before [157] and during prolonged exercise [158].”

“…have reported similar improvements in subsequent time-trial performance and high-intensity interval cycling capacity after either carbohydrates alone or carbohydrate–protein co-ingestion during 2–5 h recovery periods in both young and master endurance athletes [91, 92] (Supplementary Material 3).”

“…as it may confer additional benefits, including positive nitrogen balance leading to increased whole-body muscle protein synthesis [93], increased protein content related to mitochondrial biogenesis [94], reduced muscle damage markers [95], and accelerated post-exercise rehydration [96].”

“However, two studies investigating this did not observe any positive effects on recovery indices when total daily protein intake is sufficient [77, 78].”

“Fru fructose, Gal galactose, GI glycemic index, GLu glucose one study found enhanced endurance capability following high-GI carbohydrate consumption [39], others found no effect [40–42] or even superior performance with low-GI carbohydrate intake, attributed to improved glucose stability and…”

“Oral rehydration solutions and sports drinks are common strategies to improve fluid retention owing to their balanced carbohydrate and electrolyte content [110].”

“…in reducing EIMD, including fruit extracts such as tart cherry [191], beetroot [192], pomegranate [193], blueberry [194], watermelon [195], grape [196], and blackcurrant [197], as well as vitamin E [198], curcumin [199], cacao [200], and vitamin D [201], with the strongest evidence surrounding…”

“The lack of performance enhancement in some studies may be due to intraindividual variability in the time required to reach peak HCO ₃ ⁻ levels and the occurrence of gastrointestinal discomfort [127, 132, 133].”

“3), while others have reported that a shorter recovery time of 35 min may be inadequate to restored acid–base balance to improve subsequent exercise capacity [131] (Supplementary Material 6).”

“In contrast, delaying post-exercise carbohydrate ingestion by 2 h can lead to reduced muscle glycogen concentrations 4 h after exercise compared with immediate ingestion [13] and may impair exercise performance the following day [14].”

“Sport and exercise nutrition is focused on the optimization of dietary strategies to support and enhance training adaptations, performance, health, and metabolic recovery (155–157).”

“…maximal output, recent research has increasingly shifted attention toward the role of nutritional supplementation in supporting metabolic efficiency, recovery processes, and performance maintenance during repeated high-intensity loading, particularly when recovery windows are limited [2].”

“Studies show that consuming 7–12 g of CHO per kilogram of body weight in the 1–3 days before the competition can significantly improve performance in prolonged tests [95].”

“Incorporating dietary variables as covariates allows for a clearer understanding of the relative influence of training and competitive stress versus diet [82].”

“It is well established that both aerobic and anaerobic training adaptations can be enhanced through the synergistic effects of appropriate nutritional strategies and/or supplementation (Deng et al. 2025; Naderi et al. 2025).”

“Consuming adequate carbohydrates in this critical period is essential for athletes engaging in frequent and intensive endurance training, as it enables proper recovery before the next training session [13,14,17].”

“These factors directly contribute to improved performance 3 .”

“Inversely, adequate nutrition and supplementation help limit injuries, inflammation, and post-exercise pain [7,8].”

“Consequently, research in sport and exercise science aims to understand physiological responses to exercise [7], metabolic adaptations to training [8], and the role of nutritional strategies in supporting performance and recovery in physically active and athletic populations [9].”

“However, this only becomes relevant at exercise durations of 90 min and more [31].”

“Recent studies have indicated that certain dietary interventions, such as a carbohydrate-rich diet, can help prevent the onset of OTS and facilitate recovery [11].”

“This observation indicates that carbohydrate source may play a more important role during the early stages of recovery, whereas longer-term adaptations may be influenced by broader physiological processes related to training stimulus and metabolic regulation [3].”

“Recent work has renewed attention on the post-exercise period, where CHO intake is recommended to accelerate glycogen restoration and support capacity for subsequent endurance exercise (Gonzalez and Wallis 2021; Naderi et al. 2025 ).”

“Variations in training volume [7], intensity [8], and frequency [9], alongside recovery strategies [10] and nutritional status [11], modulate the direction and magnitude of these adaptations.”

“Because effective recovery may facilitate subsequent exercise performance and support long-term training adaptations, nutritional and supplementation interventions are receiving increasing attention as potential strategies to support post-exercise recovery [12].”

“Pertaining to CHO availability, contemporary reviews have highlighted that protein co-ingestion appears most ergogenic when total CHO intake is moderate, rather than maximized, and when exercise duration or frequency imposes repeated stress within a single day or a short microcycle [46,47].”

“High-intensity combat efforts may result in glycogen depletion, neuromuscular fatigue, muscle damage, and fluid loss, making the timing and practical implementation of recovery strategies particularly important when subsequent bouts or training sessions follow within a short period [8,78].”

“In this context, dietary intake and energy availability play a central role in supporting muscle regeneration, glycogen resynthesis and overall recovery processes [11].”

“This is particularly important for athletes facing short recovery intervals or repeated competition demands (Bongiovanni et al., 2020; Naderi et al., 2025).”

“Post-exercise recovery is a central component of sports nutrition because it influences subsequent training quality, performance readiness, and long-term adaptation [1,2].”