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Cited by 77Muscle metabolism and nutritionSports Performance and TrainingExercise and Physiological Responses

The 4R’s Framework of Nutritional Strategies for Post-Exercise Recovery: A Review with Emphasis on New Generation of Carbohydrates

Open access
Bonilla, Diego A., Pérez-Idárraga, Alexandra, Odriozola-Martínez, Adrián, Kreider, Richard B.·2020·International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
DOI 10.3390/ijerph18010103PMC PMC7796021
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Abstract

Post-exercise recovery is a broad term that refers to the restoration of training capacity. After training or competition, there is fatigue accumulation and a reduction in sports performance. In the hours and days following training, the body recovers and performance is expected to return to normal or improve. ScienceDirect, PubMed/MEDLINE, and Google Scholar databases were reviewed to identify studies and position declarations examining the relationship between nutrition and sports recovery. As an evidence-based framework, a 4R’s approach to optimizing post-exercise recovery was identified: (i) Rehydration—a fundamental process that will depend on the athlete, environment and sports event; (ii) Refuel—the consumption of carbohydrates is not only important to replenish the glycogen reserves but also to contribute to the energy requirements for the immune system and tissue reparation. Several bioengineered carbohydrates were discussed but further research is needed; (iii) Repair—post-exercise ingestion of high-quality protein and creatine monohydrate benefit the tissue growth and repair; and (iv) Rest—pre-sleep nutrition has a restorative effect that facilitates the recovery of the musculoskeletal, endocrine, immune, and nervous systems. Nutritional consultancy based on the 4R’s is important for the wise stewardship of the hydration, feeding, and supplementation strategies to achieve a timely recovery.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This narrative review proposes a 4R's framework (Rehydrate, Refuel, Repair, Rest) for post-exercise recovery nutrition, with particular emphasis on bioengineered "new generation" carbohydrates. It synthesizes existing position stands and studies rather than presenting new primary data.

Key findings

  • The review identifies four interrelated post-exercise nutrition domains: Rehydrate (replace fluid/electrolyte deficits), Refuel (replenish glycogen and support immune/tissue needs), Repair (protein, creatine, antioxidants for tissue growth), and Rest (sleep and pre-sleep nutrition).
  • Rehydration guidance: consume ~150% of weight lost (~1.5 L·kg⁻¹) with sodium at 20–30 mEq·L⁻¹ for rapid recovery (<4 h); 40–60 mEq·L⁻¹ sodium may improve fluid retention when time between sessions is short. Sweat rates typically range 0.3–2.4 L·h⁻¹, with a reported maximum of 3.7 L·h⁻¹ in an ultramarathon runner.
  • Refuel guidance: daily carbohydrate needs ranked as 5–8 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ (moderate training), 8–10 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ (moderate-to-heavy endurance), and 10–12+ g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ (extreme programs); for rapid recovery, >8 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ with ≥1.2 g·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹ in the first 4 h.
  • Repair guidance: post-exercise protein recommendation of 0.5 g·kg⁻¹ high-quality protein (or 40 g absolute); creatine monohydrate 0.1 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹; pre-sleep casein 40–48 g ~30 min before sleep. Isomaltulose (8–10% w/v) attenuated blood glucose decline vs. maltodextrin (−4% vs. −19%, p = 0.015) in a soccer simulation.

Methods

  • Narrative literature search of ScienceDirect, PubMed/MEDLINE, and Google Scholar using the string "nutrition AND (exercise recovery OR sports recovery)," supplemented by hand-searching.
  • Prioritized English-language papers from 2010 onward (with selected earlier foundational works); excluded articles not analyzing post-exercise recovery, abstracts, papers without full text, and performance/image-enhancing drug studies.
  • The Boolean search returned 1816 references, which were screened by article type, text availability, and topical suitability; no formal systematic-review or meta-analytic synthesis was performed.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: the authors repeatedly note that further research is needed for bioengineered carbohydrates (isomaltulose, trehalulose, modified starches, cyclodextrins/HBCD) due to heterogeneity of studies and reports of negligible effects when athletes are matched for carbohydrate and energy intake; trehalulose in particular is described as not widely studied.
  • Stated in the paper: evidence for pre-sleep nutrition is strongest in resistance-type training, with more research needed in endurance-trained athletes (recent findings showed no improvement); sleep-intervention research across athlete populations is described as lacking.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without a registered protocol, risk-of-bias assessment, or quantitative pooling, so the recommendations rest on the authors' synthesis of heterogeneous sources rather than systematic appraisal.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/ijerph18010103

Cites

160 of 160 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 144 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationnone given

    Rehydration needs depend on the athlete, environment, and sports event.

    “Rehydration—a fundamental process that will depend on the athlete, environment and sports event”
    • Also stated in: § 3.1. Rehydrate · plain
      “Rehydration is a fundamental step in recovery, but what, how, when and how much will depend on the athlete and the particular event.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The 4R's approach (Rehydration, Refuel, Repair, Rest) is an evidence-based framework for optimizing post-exercise recovery.

    “As an evidence-based framework, a 4R’s approach to optimizing post-exercise recovery was identified: (i) Rehydration—a fundamental process that will depend on the athlete, environment and sports event; (ii) Refuel—the consumption of carbohydrates is not only important to replenish the glycogen reserves but also to contribute to the energy requirements for the immune system and tissue reparation.”
    • Also stated in: § 3. Results and Discussion · plain
      “To improve comprehension regarding the nutritional strategies that impact post-exercise recovery, a mnemonic entitled the 4R’s (Rehydrate, Refuel, Repair, and Rest) is introduced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    There is no need for protein and/or amino acid ingestion to enhance insulin levels if sufficient carbohydrates are consumed (1.2 g·kg−1·h−1).

    “and there is no need for protein and/or amino acid ingestion in order to enhance the insulin levels if sufficient carbohydrates are consumed (1.2 g·kg−1·h−1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Jentjens, 2003, Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery, Sports Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Resistance/power athletes do not need as much carbohydrates as endurance athletes to maintain optimal liver and muscle glycogen.

    “Additionally, resistance/power athletes do not need much carbohydrates as endurance athletes to maintain optimal liver and muscle glycogen; therefore, based on the exercise and sports nutrition review update of the International Society of Sports Nutrition [37]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Kerksick, C.M., Wilborn, C.D., Roberts, M.D., Smith-Ryan, A., Kleiner, S.M., Jäger, R., Collins, R., Cooke, M., Davis, J.N., and Galvan, E. (2018). ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: Research & recommendations. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 15. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Higher insulin concentrations do not further increase the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis when carbohydrate intake is sufficient.

    “In fact, higher insulin concentrations do not further increase the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis when carbohydrate intake is sufficient [34].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Jentjens, 2003, Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery, Sports Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
  • May combine two claims. 52

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The literature search yielded 1816 references.

    “The execution of the search algorithm with Boolean operators resulted in 1816 references”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Post-exercise carbohydrate consumption is important to replenish glycogen reserves and to contribute to energy requirements for the immune system and tissue repair.

    “Refuel—the consumption of carbohydrates is not only important to replenish the glycogen reserves but also to contribute to the energy requirements for the immune system and tissue reparation.”
    • Also stated in: § 3.2. Refuel · plain
      “The consumption of carbohydrates is not only important to replenish the reserves, but also to contribute to cover the energy requirements that are fundamental to help the competition of the immune system and the repair of the tissues [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Burke, 2006, Energy and carbohydrate for training and recovery, J. Sports Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chocolate milk can be used for rehydration and in turn help recovery.

    “On the other hand, some drinks that can be used for rehydration and in turn help recovery has been successfully studied, such as chocolate milk [31,32,33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [31] Karp, 2006, Chocolate milk as a post-exercise recovery aid, Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [32] Roy, 2008, Milk: The new sports drink? A Review, J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [33] Shirreffs, 2007, Milk as an effective post-exercise rehydration drink, Br. J. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Slightly less carbohydrate plus protein (e.g., 1 g carbohydrate·kg−1 and 0.5 g protein·kg−1) within 30 min after exercise, or carbohydrates along with caffeine, may aid rapid glycogen resynthesis.

    “Slightly less carbohydrate plus protein (e.g., 1 g carbohydrate·kg−1 and 0.5 g protein·kg−1) within 30 min after exercise or carbohydrates along with caffeine may also be used to aid rapid glycogen resynthesis [37].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Kerksick, C.M., Wilborn, C.D., Roberts, M.D., Smith-Ryan, A., Kleiner, S.M., Jäger, R., Collins, R., Cooke, M., Davis, J.N., and Galvan, E. (2018). ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: Research & recommendations. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 15. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sports nutritionists, coaches and athletes should be cautious with the potential physiological implications of relative energy deficiency in sport, which includes impaired metabolic rate, hormonal disruptions, menstrual dysfunction, reduced bone health, immunity, protein synthesis, and cardiovascular health.

    “Sports nutritionists, coaches and athletes should be cautious with the potential physiological implications of the relative energy deficiency in sport, which includes impaired metabolic rate, hormonal disruptions, menstrual dysfunction, reduced bone health, immunity, protein synthesis, and cardiovascular health [41,42].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [41] 2020, Þegar orkuna skortir–áhrif hlutfallslegs orkuskorts í íþróttum (RED-s) á heilsu og árangur, Læknablaðið source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] Mountjoy, 2018, International Olympic Committee (IOC) Consensus Statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S): 2018 Update, Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    If rapid recovery is required due to limited time, the priority should be to consume large amounts of daily carbohydrates (>8 g·kg−1 body mass·day−1) and to eat a high carbohydrate meal within two hours following exercise with at least 1.2 g·kg−1·h−1 for the first four hours of recovery.

    “Hence, if rapid recovery is required due to a limited time period available, the priority should be to consume large amounts of daily carbohydrates (>8 g·kg−1 body mass·day−1) and to eat a high carbohydrate meal within two hours following exercise with at least 1.2 g·kg−1·h−1 for the first four hours of recovery [38].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Burke, 2011, Carbohydrates for training and competition, J. Sports Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: In the post-exercise period, it takes about four hours for carbohydrates to be digested and absorbed into muscle and liver tissues to be incorporated as glycogen.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Pre-sleep nutrition has a restorative effect that facilitates recovery of the musculoskeletal, endocrine, immune, and nervous systems.

    “Rest—pre-sleep nutrition has a restorative effect that facilitates the recovery of the musculoskeletal, endocrine, immune, and nervous systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Neither addition of potassium to the drink, nor the way of distributing the volume, nor temperature influence the percentage of liquid preserved for rehydration.

    “In the rehydration process, it has been found that neither the addition of potassium to the drink [27] nor the way of distributing the volume [28] nor the temperature influence the percentage of liquid preserved to be subsequently used by the body for rehydration [29]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] 2014, Postexercise rehydration: Potassium-rich drinks versus water and a sports drink, Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. = Physiol. Appl. Nutr. Metab. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] 2011, Rehidratación posejercicio: La forma de distribuir la ingesta de un volumen constante de líquido no altera su conservación, Pensar En Mov. Rev. Cienc. Ejerc. Salud

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [29] 2010, Post-Exercise Rehydration: No Change in Diuresis from Water Ingested at Different Temperatures, Med. Sport. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The amount of carbohydrates needed is determined by the need to replenish muscle glycogen stores and is closely related to time to next training session or competition, nutrition periodization, need for muscle repair and growth, and amount consumed before and after as part of global requirements.

    “In this sense, the amount of carbohydrates is determined by the need to replenish muscle glycogen stores, and according to Jeukendrup (2017) [17], this is closely related to:Time to next training session or competition,Nutrition periodization to achieve adaptations,Need for muscle repair and growth,The amount consumed before and after as part of global requirements.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jeukendrup (2017) [17] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ingestion of a glucose polymer or the combination of glucose and fructose (sucrose) results in fast replenishment of muscle glycogen stores while minimizing gastrointestinal distress.

    “Ingestion of a glucose polymer or the combination of glucose and fructose (sucrose) results in a fast replenishment of muscle glycogen stores whilst also minimizing gastrointestinal distress [39]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Gonzalez, J., Fuchs, C., Betts, J., and van Loon, L. (2017). Glucose Plus Fructose Ingestion for Post-Exercise Recovery—Greater than the Sum of Its Parts?. Nutrients, 9. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nutritional strategies after exercise help refuel energy sources, replace fluid and electrolytes, synthesize new proteins, and improve immune system response.

    “nutritional strategies after exercise helps to refuel energy sources (e.g., muscle and liver glycogen), replace fluid and electrolytes, synthesize new proteins to counteract both catabolic state and exercise-induced damage, and improve immune system response [9,10,11].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [9] Burke, L. (2010). Nutricion en el Deporte/Nutrition in Sport: Un Enfoque Práctico/a Practical Approach, Editorial Médica Panamericana S.A.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [10] Zoorob, 2013, Sports Nutrition Needs, Prim. Care source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [11] Ivy, 2013, Nutrient Timing, Am. J. Lifestyle Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Carbohydrate intake must be fine-tuned based on individual features, total energy daily expenditure, exercise training requirements, and feedback from training performance in daily recovery.

    “Although certain general recommendations can be given, the carbohydrate intake must be fine-tuned based on individual features, total energy daily expenditure, exercise training requirements, and the respective feedback from training performance in daily recovery [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Burke, 2006, Energy and carbohydrate for training and recovery, J. Sports Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ingestion of glycerol improves both the rate of rehydration and total fluid retention following exercise.

    “One practical application to improve both the rate of rehydration and total fluid retention following exercise is the ingestion of glycerol [22,26]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [22] McCubbin, 2020, Sports Dietitians Australia Position Statement: Nutrition for Exercise in Hot Environments, Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] Van Rosendal, S.P., and Coombes, J.S. (2012). Glycerol Use in Hyperhydration and Rehydration: Scientific Update. Acute Topics in Sport Nutrition, Karger AG. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Recovery strategies depend on the proximity of the next session, the degree of physiological stress, and the relevance of the next event.

    “Thus, recovery strategies will depend to a large extent on the proximity of the next session, the degree of physiological stress and the relevance of the next event.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Delay in early rehydration after exercise is attributed to a reduction in thirst sensations, and taste and cool temperature of beverages can positively affect these sensations.

    “however, it is believed that the delay in early rehydration after exercise is attributed to a reduction in sensations associated with thirst, and it is known that the taste and cool temperature of beverages can positively affect these sensations [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Sandick, 1984, Perception of drinking water temperature and effects for humans after exercise, Physiol. Behav. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cyclodextrins represent dietary fibers useful in controlling body mass and blood lipid profile and improving intestinal microbiota through selective proliferation of Bifidobacterium, and their anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects make them bioactive nutritional supplements and nutraceuticals.

    “As they are considered tasteless, odorless, non-digestible, non-caloric, and non-cariogenic saccharides, cyclodextrins represent dietary fibers useful in controlling body mass and blood lipid profile besides improving the intestinal microbiota through the selective proliferation of Bifidobacterium. These anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects make them bioactive nutritional supplements and nutrace”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79] Fenyvesi, 2015, Cyclodextrins in Food Technology and Human Nutrition: Benefits and Limitations, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In endurance-trained athletes (VO2max > 55 mL·kg−1·min−1), isomaltulose ingestion (750 mL, 10% w/v) maintained a more stable blood glucose concentration and increased fat oxidation during exercise, resulting in improved cycling performance compared to maltodextrin consumption.

    “At a sporting level, isomaltulose ingestion (750 mL, 10% w/v) maintained a more stable blood glucose concentration and increased fat oxidation during exercise, resulting in improved cycling performance compared to maltodextrin consumption in endurance-trained athletes (VO2max > 55 mL·kg−1·min−1) [50].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] König, D., Zdzieblik, D., Holz, A., Theis, S., and Gollhofer, A. (2016). Substrate Utilization and Cycling Performance Following Palatinose™ Ingestion: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 8. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Isomaltulose is a non-starch slowly digestible carbohydrate with unique glycosidic bonds that is digested and absorbed at a different rate, resulting in a changed glycemic and insulinemic response.

    “Thus, isomaltulose is part of a category of carbohydrates called non-starch slowly digestible carbohydrates, which have unique glycosidic bonds that are different from the better-known or naturally occurring molecules; therefore, they are digested and absorbed at a different rate resulting in a changed glycemic and insulinemic response [46].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] Zhang, G., Ao, Z., and Hamaker, B.R. (2009). Controlling the delivery of glucose in foods. Designing Functional Foods, Woodhead Publishing. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Modulation of microbiota by probiotic/prebiotic supplementation has been shown to ameliorate oxidative stress and inflammation and to improve performance in certain athletic populations.

    “Thus, modulation of microbiota by means of probiotic/prebiotic supplementation has shown to ameliorate oxidative stress and inflammation and to improve performance in certain athletic populations but more rigorous studies are needed [92,93,94].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [92] Huang, W.-C., Pan, C.-H., Wei, C.-C., and Huang, H.-Y. (2020). Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 Improves Physiological Adaptation and Performance in Triathletes through Gut Microbiota Modulation. Nutrients, 12. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [93] Jäger, R., Mohr, A.E., Carpenter, K.C., Kerksick, C.M., Purpura, M., Moussa, A., Townsend, J.R., Lamprecht, M., West, N.P., and Black, K. (2019). International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Probiotics. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 16. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [94] Mohr, A.E., Jäger, R., Carpenter, K.C., Kerksick, C.M., Purpura, M., Townsend, J.R., West, N.P., Black, K., Gleeson, M., and Pyne, D.B. (2020). The athletic gut microbiota. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 17. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Starch can be classified as rapidly digestible, slowly digestible, and resistant, where the speed parameter refers to how easily enzymes hydrolyze the starch and how quickly blood glucose concentration is affected.

    “Starch is the most common carbohydrate and can be classified as rapidly digestible, slowly digestible and resistant starch, where the speed parameter refers to how easily the enzymes hydrolyze the starch and, therefore, how quickly the blood glucose concentration is affected [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] Ngo, C. (2018). In Vitro Starch Digestion for Analysis of Healthy Carbohydrates. [Master’s Thesis, Luleå University of Technology].

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Starch modifications generally lead to carbohydrates with a higher number of ramifications, which increases the molecular weight of the compound.

    “Generally, these modifications lead to carbohydrates with a higher number of ramifications, which increases the molecular weight of the compound.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HBCD is produced from waxy corn starch using bacterial-derived α-amylase and α-(1→4)-glucan-branching enzyme, with validated results regarding safety for human consumption.

    “HBCD is produced from the processing of waxy corn starch using bacterial-derived α-amylase and α-(1→4)-glucan-branching enzyme (EC 2.4.1.18), a member of the broader group of glucanotransferases with validated results regarding the safety for human consumption [77].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [77] Choi, 2009, Safety evaluation of highly-branched cyclic dextrin and a 1,4-α-glucan branching enzyme from Bacillus stearothermophilus, Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HBCD has a low osmolarity (a 10% HBCD solution has an osmotic pressure of 9 mOsm·kg−1) that could favor gastric emptying, allowing it to be used to produce a sports drink without increasing osmotic pressure too much, reaching 150 mOsm·kg−1 when added minerals, vitamins, and organic acids.

    “Due to its relatively high weight and narrow molecular distribution, HBCD has a low osmolarity (a 10% HBCD solution has an osmotic pressure of 9 mOsm·kg−1) that could favor gastric emptying, which is why it can be used to produce a sports drink without increasing the osmotic pressure too much, reaching 150 mOsm·kg−1 when added minerals, vitamins, and organic acids [80,81].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [80] Takata, 2006, Industrial production of branching enzyme, and its application to production of highly branched cyclic dextrin (Cluster DextrinTM), Seibutsu Kogaku Kaishi

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    • cites [81] Kometani, 2010, Production of novel bioactive compounds by enzymes, and their application to food, Pure Appl. Chem. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cyclodextrins have glycosidic bonds that salivary amylases can hydrolyze slowly due to thermodynamic parameters, and therefore have very low glycemic indexes and provide a longer time of glucose supply to the bloodstream.

    “Cyclodextrins have glycosidic bonds that salivary amylases are able to hydrolyze but they act slowly due to thermodynamic parameters [76]; therefore, cyclodextrins have very low glycemic indexes and provide a longer time of glucose supply to the bloodstream [77,78].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [76] Dura, 2016, Glycemic Response to Corn Starch Modified with Cyclodextrin Glycosyltransferase and its Relationship to Physical Properties, Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [77] Choi, 2009, Safety evaluation of highly-branched cyclic dextrin and a 1,4-α-glucan branching enzyme from Bacillus stearothermophilus, Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [78] Takii, 2005, Fluids Containing a Highly Branched Cyclic Dextrin Influence the Gastric Emptying Rate, Int. J. Sports Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The gut microbiome can rapidly respond to altered diet, potentially facilitating the diversity of human dietary lifestyles.

    “In fact, the gut microbiome can rapidly respond to altered diet, potentially facilitating the diversity of human dietary lifestyles; for instance, the low consumption of dietary fiber and resistant starch may lead to a decrease in bowel movements resulting in decreased intestinal function, which would decrease the diversity of intestinal bacteria [91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] David, 2013, Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Consumption of high-molecular weight carbohydrates was proposed as an effective alternative to favor post-exercise muscle (and probably hepatic) glycogen resynthesis, which might be of practical importance for athletes wishing to optimize performance during recovery following prolonged sub-maximal exercise.

    “Hence, the consumption of high-molecular weight carbohydrates was proposed as an effective alternative to favor the post-exercise muscle (and probably hepatic) glycogen resynthesis, which might be of practical importance for athletes wishing to optimize performance during recovery following prolonged sub-maximal exercise [65].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] Stephens, 2008, Post-exercise ingestion of a unique, high molecular weight glucose polymer solution improves performance during a subsequent bout of cycling exercise, J. Sports Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In physically-active type-I diabetic patients, consumption of isomaltulose alongside rapid-acting insulin reduction improved blood glucose responses to exercise and produced a similar high-intensity run performance compared with dextrose.

    “For instance, positive metabolic effects have been reported in physically-active type-I diabetic patients given that the consumption of isomaltulose alongside rapid-acting insulin reduction improved blood glucose responses to exercise and produced a similar high-intensity run performance compared with dextrose [49].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Bracken, 2012, Isomaltulose Improves Glycemia and Maintains Run Performance in Type 1 Diabetes, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    During a heavy resistance training program, recovery benefits of whey protein might be enhanced with the addition of HMB and isomaltulose, which has shown significant reductions in markers of muscle damage while improving athletic performance.

    “Interestingly, during a heavy resistance training program, the recovery benefits of whey protein might be enhanced with the addition of β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) and isomaltulose, which has shown to have significant reductions in markers of muscle damage while improving athletic performance [53].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Kraemer, 2015, The Addition of Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate and Isomaltulose to Whey Protein Improves Recovery from Highly Demanding Resistance Exercise, J. Am. Coll. Nutr. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Both isomaltulose and maltodextrin lowered the rise in plasma epinephrine concentrations in response to prolonged exercise, with isomaltulose most effective at 90 and 120 min.

    “Moreover, both isomaltulose and maltodextrin lowered the rise in plasma epinephrine concentrations in response to prolonged exercise, albeit isomaltulose proved most effective at 90 and 120 min.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High molecular weight provides a very low osmolarity and therefore accelerates passage through the stomach to the intestine.

    “This high molecular weight provides a very low osmolarity and therefore accelerates its passage through the stomach to the intestine [63].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Pfeiffer, 1998, The role of osmolality in the absorption of a nutrient solution, Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Trehalulose has relative sweetness to sucrose between 0.4 and 0.7, which is particularly interesting for physically active diabetic individuals or sportsmen because of its similar properties to isomaltulose.

    “Its relative sweetness to sucrose is between 0.4 and 0.7, which is particularly interesting for physically active diabetic individuals, or sportsmen, because of its similar properties to isomaltulose [59]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Arai, 2014, Recent Trends in Functional Food Science and the Industry in Japan, Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Several studies have shown that HBCD improves gastrointestinal outcomes, reduces gastric emptying time, has positive effects on endurance sports performance, decreases rating of perceived exertion during prolonged exercise, and attenuates stress hormonal response and reduces urinary cytokine levels after extensive exercise in triathletes.

    “Several studies have shown not only improvements at the gastrointestinal level [82] and a reduction on the gastric emptying time [78] but also positive effects on endurance sports performance [83], a decrease in the rating of perceived exertion during prolonged exercise [84] and even an attenuation in the stress hormonal response and reduction of urinary cytokine levels after extensive exercise in”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [82] Takii, 2004, A Sports Drink Based on Highly Branched Cyclic Dextrin Generates Few Gastrointestinal Disorders in Untrained Men during Bicycle Exercise, Food Sci. Technol. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [78] Takii, 2005, Fluids Containing a Highly Branched Cyclic Dextrin Influence the Gastric Emptying Rate, Int. J. Sports Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [83] Shiraki, 2015, Evaluation of Exercise Performance with the Intake of Highly Branched Cyclic Dextrin in Athletes, Food Sci. Technol. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low consumption of dietary fiber and resistant starch may lead to decreased bowel movements, decreased intestinal function, and decreased diversity of intestinal bacteria.

    “for instance, the low consumption of dietary fiber and resistant starch may lead to a decrease in bowel movements resulting in decreased intestinal function, which would decrease the diversity of intestinal bacteria [91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] David, 2013, Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Use of antioxidants can reduce muscle soreness and help with recovery in the short term.

    “therefore, the use of antioxidants can reduce muscle soreness and help with recovery in the short term”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [102] Myburgh, 2014, Polyphenol supplementation: Benefits for exercise performance or oxidative stress?, Sports Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Negative nitrogen balance is an indicator of protein catabolism and negatively affects recovery.

    “which is an indicator of protein catabolism and negatively affect recovery.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Kerksick, C.M., Wilborn, C.D., Roberts, M.D., Smith-Ryan, A., Kleiner, S.M., Jäger, R., Collins, R., Cooke, M., Davis, J.N., and Galvan, E. (2018). ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: Research & recommendations. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 15. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Creatine monohydrate supplementation may reduce muscle damage and/or enhance recovery from intense exercise.

    “but also may reduce muscle damage and/or enhance recovery from intense exercise [99].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [99] Kreider, R.B., Kalman, D.S., Antonio, J., Ziegenfuss, T.N., Wildman, R., Collins, R., Candow, D.G., Kleiner, S.M., Almada, A.L., and Lopez, H.L. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 14. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Acute beetroot juice supplementation has no effect on maximal isometric voluntary contractions, CK, and some inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-alpha, and IL-8).

    “while apparently having no effect on maximal isometric voluntary contractions, CK and some inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-alpha and IL-8) [114].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [114] Clifford, 2015, The effects of beetroot juice supplementation on indices of muscle damage following eccentric exercise, Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Zingiber officinale, Zingiber officinale + Bixa orellana L., Rhodiola rosea, Cordyceps militaris, and Rhodiola rosea + Cordyceps sinensis have promising effects to improve post-exercise recovery.

    “Other herbal and mushroom supplements that have promising effects to improve post-exercise recovery are Zingiber officinale [116], Zingiber officinale + Bixa orellana L. [117], Rhodiola rosea [118], Cordyceps militaris [119], and Rhodiola rosea + Cordyceps sinensis [120].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [116] Wilson, 2018, A Randomized Double-Blind Trial of Ginger Root for Reducing Muscle Soreness and Improving Physical Performance Recovery among Experienced Recreational Distance Runners, J. Diet. Suppl. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [117] Dominguez-Balmaseda, D., Diez-Vega, I., Larrosa, M., San Juan, A.F., Issaly, N., Moreno-Pérez, D., Burgos, S., Sillero-Quintana, M., Gonzalez, C., and Bas, A. (2020). Effect of a Blend of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Bixa orellana L. Herbal Supplement on the Recovery of Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness Induced by Unaccustomed Eccentric Resistance Training: A Randomized, Triple-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Front. Physiol., 11. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [118] Pu, W.-l., Zhang, M.-y., Bai, R.-y., Sun, L.-k., Li, W.-h., Yu, Y.-l., Zhang, Y., Song, L., Wang, Z.-x., and Peng, Y.-f. (2020). Anti-inflammatory effects of Rhodiola rosea L.: A review. Biomed. Pharmacother., 121. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Supplementation with Montmorency cherry concentrate can reduce symptoms of muscle damage and improve post-exercise recovery on subsequent days in females.

    “More recently, Brown et al. (2019) also reported that supplementation with Montmorency cherry concentrate can be considered as a practical nutritional intervention to reduce symptoms of muscle damage and improve post-exercise recovery on subsequent days in females [104].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [104] Brown, 2018, Montmorency tart cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) supplementation accelerates recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage in females, Eur. J. Sport Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Supplementation with branched-chain amino acids after high-intensity exercise may favor a hormonal environment that attenuates loss of strength, reduces muscle damage, and generates an anabolic environment.

    “On the other hand, it appears that supplementation with branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) after high-intensity exercise may favor a hormonal environment that contributes to attenuate the loss of strength, reduce muscle damage, and generate an anabolic environment [127].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [127] Kraemer, 2006, The effects of amino acid supplementation on hormonal responses to resistance training overreaching, Metab. Clin. Exp. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Creatine monohydrate supplementation (0.1 g·kg−1·day−1) optimizes exercise adaptations and increases performance.

    “On the other hand, a large body of evidence suggests that creatine monohydrate supplementation (0.1 g·kg−1·day−1) not only optimize exercise adaptations and increase performance but also may reduce muscle damage and/or enhance recovery from intense exercise [99].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [99] Kreider, R.B., Kalman, D.S., Antonio, J., Ziegenfuss, T.N., Wildman, R., Collins, R., Candow, D.G., Kleiner, S.M., Almada, A.L., and Lopez, H.L. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 14. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Acute supplementation of beetroot juice (250 mL ×3 servings, two servings 24 h and 48 h following completion of 100-drop jumps) attenuates muscle soreness and decrements in countermovement jump performance induced by eccentric exercise.

    “It has been found that acute supplementation of beetroot juice (250 mL) ×3 servings, two serving 24 h and 48 h following completion of 100-drop jumps attenuated muscle soreness and decrements in countermovement jump performance induced by eccentric exercise, while apparently having no effect on maximal isometric voluntary contractions, CK and some inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-alpha and IL-8) [”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [114] Clifford, 2015, The effects of beetroot juice supplementation on indices of muscle damage following eccentric exercise, Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A betalain-rich concentrate of beetroots improves performance in competitive male and female triathletes and attenuates the increase of CK and fatigue, suggesting an increase in recovery.

    “Interestingly, a betalain-rich concentrate of beetroots has shown to improve performance in competitive male and female triathletes and attenuated the increase of CK and fatigue suggesting an increase in recovery [115].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [115] Montenegro, 2017, Betalain-rich concentrate supplementation improves exercise performance and recovery in competitive triathletes, Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ashwagandha has adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties.

    “Moreover, the adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of ashwagandha [124,125,126] turns this herbal extract into a potential strategy to optimize recovery and promote”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [124] Langade, D., Kanchi, S., Salve, J., Debnath, K., and Ambegaokar, D. (2019). Efficacy and Safety of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) Root Extract in Insomnia and Anxiety: A Double-blind, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Study. Cureus. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [125] Salve, J., Pate, S., Debnath, K., and Langade, D. (2019). Adaptogenic and Anxiolytic Effects of Ashwagandha Root Extract in Healthy Adults: A Double-blind, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Clinical Study. Cureus. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [126] Singh, N., Bhalla, M., De Jager, P., and Gilca, M. (2011). An Overview on Ashwagandha: A Rasayana (Rejuvenator) of Ayurveda. Afr. J. Tradit. Complementary Altern. Med., 8. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    BCAA supplementation (>200 mg·kg−1·day−1) may optimize recovery and mitigate muscle soreness following muscle-damaging exercise.

    “Indeed, several systematic reviews and meta-analysis have concluded that BCAA supplementation (>200 mg·kg−1·day−1) may optimize recovery and mitigate muscle soreness following muscle-damaging exercise [128,129,130,131].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [128] Fouré, A., and Bendahan, D. (2017). Is Branched-Chain Amino Acids Supplementation an Efficient Nutritional Strategy to Alleviate Skeletal Muscle Damage? A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 9. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [129] Rahimi, 2017, Branched-chain amino acid supplementation and exercise-induced muscle damage in exercise recovery: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials, Nutrition source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [130] Hormoznejad, 2019, Effect of BCAA supplementation on central fatigue, energy metabolism substrate and muscle damage to the exercise: A systematic review with meta-analysis, Sport Sci. Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [131] Fedewa, 2019, Effect of branched-Chain Amino Acid Supplementation on Muscle Soreness following Exercise: A Meta-Analysis, Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HMB may attenuate markers of muscle damage, augment acute immune and endocrine responses, and prevent loss of lean body mass in catabolic situations.

    “and may attenuate markers of muscle damage, augment acute immune and endocrine responses while preventing loss of lean body mass in catabolic situations [134].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134] Silva, 2017, β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate free acid supplementation may improve recovery and muscle adaptations after resistance training: A systematic review, Nutr. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Portuguese elite female gymnasts have poor sleep habits with consequences on daytime sleepiness, sleep quality, and low energy availability associated with macro and micronutrient deficiencies.

    “Portuguese elite female gymnasts have also found to have poor sleep habits with consequences on daytime sleepiness, sleep quality, and low energy availability associated with macro and micronutrients’ deficiencies [143].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [143] Silva, 2015, Poor precompetitive sleep habits, nutrients’ deficiencies, inappropriate body composition and athletic performance in elite gymnasts, Eur. J. Sport Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sleep is an absolutely vital physiological function and one of the most important factors in post-exercise recovery.

    “There is no doubt that sleep is an absolutely vital physiological function and one of the most important factors in post-exercise recovery [140].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [140] Vitale, 2019, Sleep Hygiene for Optimizing Recovery in Athletes: Review and Recommendations, Int. J. Sports Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Casein proteins are a high-quality protein source with high digestibility and bioavailability but with a slower digestion rate in comparison to whey.

    “Casein proteins, a type of secreted calcium (phosphate)-binding phosphoproteins, are among the most common nutrients used for pre-sleep nutrition given they are considered a high-quality protein source with high digestibility and bioavailability but with a slower digestion rate in comparison to whey [148].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [148] Kim, 2020, Pre-sleep casein protein ingestion: New paradigm in post-exercise recovery nutrition, Phys. Act. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Athletes show a high overall prevalence of insomnia symptoms characterized by increased sleep latency, sleep fragmentation, non-restorative sleep, and excessive daytime fatigue.

    “In fact, according to a recent systematic review by Gupta et al. [144], athletes show a high overall prevalence of insomnia symptoms characterized by increased sleep latency, sleep fragmentation, non-restorative sleep, and excessive daytime fatigue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [144] Gupta, 2016, Does Elite Sport Degrade Sleep Quality? A Systematic Review, Sports Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Optimal sleeping time and quality are necessary to benefit the allostatic response after exercise.

    “Rest—Optimal sleeping time and quality are necessary to benefit the allostatic response after exercise.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    19% of 340 Swedish adolescent elite athletes of several disciplines did not obtain the recommended amount of sleep during weekdays (8 h) during the autumn semester.

    “In spite of the above, von Rosen et al. (2017) reported that the recommended amount of sleep during weekdays (8 h) was not obtained by 19% of 340 Swedish adolescent elite athletes of several disciplines during the autumn semester.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [142] Frohm, 2017, Too little sleep and an unhealthy diet could increase the risk of sustaining a new injury in adolescent elite athletes, Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Eating the right combination of foods before going to sleep and avoiding certain foods in the evening may be beneficial in enhancing sleep.

    “It is known that eating the right combination of foods before going to sleep and what foods to avoid in the evening may be beneficial in enhancing sleep [146].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [146] Peuhkuri, 2012, Diet promotes sleep duration and quality, Nutr. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is not a single protocol to apply in post-exercise recovery.

    “There is not a single protocol to apply in post-exercise recovery.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The ingestion of high-quality protein stimulates post-exercise net muscle protein anabolism and might contribute to faster tissue growth and repair.

    “Repair—The ingestion of high-quality protein stimulates post-exercise net muscle protein anabolism and might contribute to faster tissue growth and repair.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Casein protein ingestion immediately before sleep is effectively digested and absorbed and increases muscle protein synthesis and net protein balance in healthy young males who performed a resistance-training bout in the evening.

    “Res et al. [149] reported for the first time that casein protein ingestion immediately before sleep was not only effectively digested and absorbed but also increased MPS and net protein balance in healthy young males that performed a resistance-training bout in the evening.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [149] Res, 2012, Protein Ingestion before Sleep Improves Postexercise Overnight Recovery, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Each R (Rehydrate, Refuel, Repair, Rest) represents a factor with tremendous influence on the allostatic response and the allostatic load that will impact exercise-induced adaptations and recovery.

    “Taking into account the allostasis model, it is important to consider that each R represents a factor with tremendous influence on the allostatic response and the allostatic load that will impact the exercise-induced adaptions and recovery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The use of certain supplements such as creatine monohydrate, tart cherry, beetroot juice, and possible ashwagandha might help to enhance recovery.

    “The use of certain supplements such as creatine monohydrate, tart cherry, beetroot juice, and possible ashwagandha might help to enhance recovery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consumption of 40-48 g of casein approximately 30 min before sleep improves post-exercise recovery and positively affects acute protein metabolism during an overnight period in healthy young adults.

    “The consumption of 40–48 g of casein approximately 30 min before sleep improves post-exercise recovery and positively affect acute protein metabolism during an overnight period in healthy young adults [148,155].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [148] Kim, 2020, Pre-sleep casein protein ingestion: New paradigm in post-exercise recovery nutrition, Phys. Act. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [155] Reis, C.E.G., Loureiro, L.M.R., Roschel, H., and da Costa, T.H.M. (2020). Effects of pre-sleep protein consumption on muscle-related outcomes—A systematic review. J. Sci. Med. Sport. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The amount, composition, and timing for the consumption of fluids, electrolytes, macronutrients, antioxidants and/or supplements depend on the type of sport, the time between sessions, the level of preparation of the athlete, the convenience of the strategy, among other factors.

    “The amount, composition, and timing for the consumption of fluids, electrolytes, macronutrients, antioxidants and/or supplements depend on the type of sport, the time between sessions, the level of preparation of the athlete, the convenience of the strategy, among other factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pomegranate, cow's milk, or chocolate milk might potentially improve exercise performance and post-exercise recovery.

    “Finally, it has been recently reviewed systematically if other foods, such as Pomegranate [137], cow’s milk [138], or Chocolate milk [139], might potentially improve exercise-performance and post-exercise recovery but further research is needed to extract definitive conclusions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [137] Ammar, 2018, Effects of pomegranate supplementation on exercise performance and post-exercise recovery in healthy adults: A systematic review, Br. J. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [138] Alcantara, J.M.A., Sanchez-Delgado, G., Martinez-Tellez, B., Labayen, I., and Ruiz, J.R. (2019). Impact of cow’s milk intake on exercise performance and recovery of muscle function: A systematic review. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr., 16. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [139] Amiri, 2018, Chocolate milk for recovery from exercise: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Several nutritional strategies may be used to optimize post-exercise recovery.

    “Several nutritional strategies may be used to optimize post-exercise recovery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HMB does not consistently increase strength and/or lean mass or reduce markers of muscle damage.

    “given it does not consistently increase strength and/or lean mass or reduce markers of muscle damage [136].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [136] Rawson, 2018, Dietary Supplements for Health, Adaptation, and Recovery in Athletes, Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. source

      Not checked in the free run.

63 of 63

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the post-exercise period, it takes about four hours for carbohydrates to be digested and absorbed into muscle and liver tissues to be incorporated as glycogen.

    “Moreover, in the post-exercise period, it takes about four hours for carbohydrates to be digested and absorbed into muscle and liver tissues to be incorporated as glycogen.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The anabolic effect of exercise is long-lasting (at least 24 h).

    “Notwithstanding, in spite of the anabolic effect of exercise is long-lasting (at least 24 h), athletes can take advantage of the higher muscle sensitivity to nutrient uptake after exercise due to the likely diminishment over time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Athletes can take advantage of higher muscle sensitivity to nutrient uptake after exercise because this sensitivity likely diminishes over time.

    “athletes can take advantage of the higher muscle sensitivity to nutrient uptake after exercise due to the likely diminishment over time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    High doses of antioxidants have been linked to reduced training benefits in the long term.

    “but high doses have also been linked to reduced training benefits in the long term.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Curcumin is rich in polyphenols and has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

    “Similarly, curcumin is rich in polyphenols and has shown anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Replenishing glycogen stores through immediate post-exercise carbohydrate intake is crucial for recovery, especially when athletes need to be fully prepared for another training session or competition within 24 h.

    “Replenishing glycogen stores through immediate post-exercise carbohydrate intake is crucial for recovery, especially when athletes need to be fully prepared for another training session or competition within 24 h [7–9].”

    From Nutritional Strategies to Improve Post-exercise Recovery and Subsequent Exercise Performance: A Narrative Review (2025) · cites this paper as [7]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Cyclodextrins described as both non-caloric and a source of absorbed glucose

    Minor

    The text calls cyclodextrins non-caloric, but also says they are metabolized into compounds including glucose that are subsequently absorbed.

  • Cited tart-cherry study describes a different exercise type

    Minor

    The discussion describes the cited study as involving resistance exercise, while the title of reference 103 identifies it as a study of endurance exercise.

  • Low-intensity category uses intense exercise as its example

    Minor

    The training category is labeled low-intensity, but its example specifies intense exercise.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 163 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Kreider, R.B. (2019). Essentials of Exercise & Sport Nutrition: Science to Practice, Lulu Press, Inc.
  2. Takata, 2006, Industrial production of branching enzyme, and its application to production of highly branched cyclic dextrin (Cluster DextrinTM), Seibutsu Kogaku Kaishi, 84, 61

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Bonilla, D. A., Pérez-Idárraga, A., Odriozola-Martínez, A., & Kreider, R. B.
Affiliations
  • University of the Basque Country (ES)
  • Universidad de Antioquia (CO)
  • Texas A&M University (US)
Corresponding author
Pérez-Idárraga, Alexandra
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2020-12-25
Volume
18
Issue
1
Pages
103
ISSN
1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/ijerph18010103
PMC
PMC7796021
OpenAlex
W3116150149
Semantic Scholar
04b5dcd0dfa4151ff8eb341f9b96dfb1be4c064a
Cited by
77
References
163
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 6
FWCI
0.75
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
Keywords
post-exercise recovery, rehydration, protein supplementation, creatine monohydrate, fatigue, sports nutrition
MeSH terms
Sleep Hygiene, Dietary Carbohydrates, Family Characteristics, Glycogen, Humans, Nutritional Requirements, Exercise, Athletic Performance, Myalgia

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

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