The DOI matches its Crossref record; 201 of the 201 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 280 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
From cognitive maps to spatial schemas
Open accessAbstract
A schema refers to a structured body of prior knowledge that captures common patterns across related experiences. Schemas have been studied separately in the realms of episodic memory and spatial navigation across different species and have been grounded in theories of memory consolidation, but there has been little attempt to integrate our understanding across domains, particularly in humans. We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with but are distinct from cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels. We describe earlier theoretical frameworks and empirical findings relevant to spatial schemas, along with more targeted investigations of spatial schemas in human and non-human animals. Consideration of architecture and urban analytics, including the influence of scale and regionalization, on different properties of spatial schemas may provide a powerful approach to advance our understanding of spatial schemas.
Overview
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TL;DR
The review proposes that spatial schemas are superordinate, generalizable spatial representations formed by integrating spatial gists across multiple similar environments, distinct from environment-specific cognitive maps and event schemas. It synthesizes rodent, human lesion/neuroimaging, and urban-analytics evidence to outline cognitive and neural mechanisms, with HPC–neocortical interactions and extra-HPC hubs such as mPFC, RSC, ERC, and PPC implicated.
Key findings
- Spatial schemas are proposed as extra-HPC, environment-independent representations that support navigation in novel environments sharing geometric/visuospatial properties; they are distinct from cognitive maps and spatial gists, which remain environment-specific and can be kept distinct via pattern separation.
- Rodent studies: rats with HPC lesions more than 24 hours after paired-associate learning retained original and novel paired associates, but lesions before 24 hours disrupted acquisition; in the village maze, HPC-lesioned rats with extensive pre-lesion experience learned novel rewarded locations as quickly as controls, whereas inexperienced HPC-lesioned rats took much longer, and performance depended on stable room geometry rather than distal cues.
- Human evidence: K.C., an individual with bilateral HPC damage, produced accurate sketch maps of his hometown’s overall layout and judged relative distances/directions between major landmarks, but was impaired for minor landmarks and perceptual details; an fMRI analogue showed retrieval activity shifting from HPC to vmPFC after 24 hours and to vlPFC by 90 days, with accelerated consolidation for congruent novel associates from days 91–105.
- Sea Hero Quest data from about 3.9 million people worldwide found that those who grew up in grid-like cities were generally worse navigators than those from disorganized cities or outside cities, but had a slight advantage in grid-like virtual environments; street network entropy values cited include Prague 3.6 and Chicago 2.5.
Methods
- Narrative review/conceptual synthesis; no new primary data were collected. It integrates prior theoretical frameworks and empirical findings from rodent spatial navigation, human lesion/amnesia, fMRI, virtual navigation, and urban analytics/space syntax.
- Evidence discussed includes rodent paradigms (event arena, village maze, HexMaze), human cases (e.g., K.C.), neuroimaging studies, and large-scale virtual navigation data (Sea Hero Quest, ~3.9 million participants, 38 countries). Main analysis is qualitative integration, not meta-analysis.
Limitations
- Stated: the concept of spatial schema is still emerging; schema operationalizations are heterogeneous (statistical rule learning, associative inference, paired-associate learning, prior knowledge retrieval), and specific experimental paradigms for spatial schemas are needed.
- Stated: systematic measurement of quantitative differences in real-world spatial organization is a major challenge; future work must determine where and how detailed and schematic spatial representations coexist and whether new schemas can be acquired/updated after HPC lesions.
- Evident: as a review, it does not directly test the proposed neurocognitive framework; many neural mechanisms and distinctions are proposed or extrapolated from event-schema and animal work, and some cited evidence is indirect.
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Claims the paper makes
172 Not checked yet · 57 Own interpretation · 8 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
In the paper
“similar parts of one environment or multiple environments seem to be represented using generalizable spatial codes [14][15][16][17][18][19] , which refer to a set of abstract spatial relations that can be used flexibly to facilitate navigation.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14][15][16][17][18][19]
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The HPC can store unique cognitive maps of different environments or of altered versions of the same environment 2,[10][11][12][13] .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 2,[10][11][12][13]
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In the paper
“In both cases, spatial schemas would be used to guide navigation by enhancing expectations in predictive coding [G] 28 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] de Lange, F. P., Heilbron, M. & Kok, P. How do expectations shape perception? Trends Cogn. Sci. 22, 764–779 (2018). source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with, but are distinct from, cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Abstract
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In the paper
“A more recent study similarly showed proactive interference in participants who were navigating novel virtual reality environments that contained segments that overlapped with familiar environments learned the day before.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] He, Q., Beveridge, E. H., Starnes, J., Goodroe, S. C. & Brown, T. I. Environmental overlap and individual encoding strategy modulate memory interference in spatial navigation. Cognition 207, 104508 (2021). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“We view this as a bidirectional process: by pointing to elements that are in common, schemas bring into focus what is distinct 67 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67] Bein, O., Reggev, N. & Maril, A. Prior knowledge promotes hippocampal separation but cortical assimilation in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Nat. Comm. 11, 4590 (2020). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“New paired associates that were consistent with learned associations were acquired in only a single trial.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Tse, D. et al. Schemas and memory consolidation. Science 316, 76–82 (2007). This study in rodents with hippocampal lesions provides evidence for spatial schemas and the involvement of the hippocampus in rapid learning. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The observed learning gains in these studies were attributed to the formation of a spatial schema 53,54 (for a recent theoretical framework based on these findings, see ref. 36 ).”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Tse, D. et al. Schemas and memory consolidation. Science 316, 76–82 (2007). This study in rodents with hippocampal lesions provides evidence for spatial schemas and the involvement of the hippocampus in rapid learning. source
- Not checked yetcites [54] Tse, D. et al. Schema-dependent gene activation and memory encoding in neocortex. Science 333, 891–895 (2011). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Performance on spatial memory tests, such as drawing the layout of the novel environment in a sketch map and recognizing scenes from photographs, indicated that, unlike non-expert controls, the taxi drivers had considerable difficulty learning a novel version of London that differed from their previously learned version of London 68 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [68] Woollett, K. & Maguire, E. A. The effect of navigational expertise on wayfinding in new environments. J. Environ. Psychol. 30, 565–573 (2010). source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“extrapolating from event schemas 22 , which do not rely on the HPC, we believe spatial schemas do not depend on the HPC for their maintenance or retrieval.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Gilboa, A. & Marlatte, H. Neurobiology of schemas and schema-mediated memory. Trends Cogn. Sci. 21, 618–631 (2017). source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 54
- It may state two separate claims as one. 62
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, a dominant model of modern city form is the clustering of economic activities in urban hubs, known as polycentricity 43,209 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source
The Introduction says contemporary cities display patterns of polycentricity and describes the clustering of economic activity in many centers as an important feature of the urban landscape. That supports the citing sentence’s characterization of polycentricity as a model of modern city form. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Could not verifycites [209] Brelsford, C., Martin, T., Hand, J. & Bettencourt, L. M. A. Toward cities without slums: Topology and the spatial evolution of neighborhoods. Sci. Adv. 4, eaar4644 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction discusses varied urban forms, and the Results examine street networks and city-block topology. Neither those passages nor searches for polycentricity, economic hubs, and employment centers address the clustering of economic activity in urban hubs. (LLM, conf=0.72)
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“In our recent research, the RSC was found to code distance to goals in well-known, real-world environments, but not in recently learned environments 153 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [153] Patai, E. Z. et al. Hippocampal and retrosplenial goal distance coding after long-term consolidation of a real-world environment. Cereb. Cortex 29, 2748–2758 (2019). This fMRI study provides evidence that the retrosplenial cortex codes spatial information in familiar environments in line with extraction of spatial knowledge to cortical regions. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are two aspects to spatial schemas: one that is psychological and relates to using previously formed schemas as reference templates for behaviour, and the other that is also neural and relates to schema formation via HPC-neocortical interaction.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Like a cognitive map, a spatial gist [G] is composed of key elements specific to a particular environment, but it may be viewed as a summary of the general layout extracted from experience navigating in that same environment, stripped of its perceptual details 20 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [20] Robin, J. & Moscovitch, M. Details, gist and schema: hippocampal–neocortical interactions underlying recent and remote episodic and spatial memory. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 17, 114–123 (2017). source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we argue that a spatial schema is a superordinate spatial representation that supports optimal decision-making in multiple environments that share common geometric and visuospatial properties.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Here we consider the possibility of a spatial schema as separate from an event schema [G], instead reflecting learned recurring patterns of spatial relations among key elements of an environment 14,18,28 , and facilitated through the act of navigating in that environment [29][30][31][32] .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Baraduc, P., Duhamel, J. R. & Wirth, S. Schema cells in the macaque hippocampus. Science 363, 635–639 (2019). Recordings from hippocampal neurons in the macaque monkey during virtual navigation show the existence of cells that generalize parts of similar environments across environments. source
- Not checked yetcites [18] McKenzie, S. et al. Hippocampal representation of related and opposing memories develop within distinct, hierarchically organized neural schemas. Neuron 83, 202–215 (2014). source
- Not checked yetcites [28] de Lange, F. P., Heilbron, M. & Kok, P. How do expectations shape perception? Trends Cogn. Sci. 22, 764–779 (2018). source
- Not checked yetcites [29][30][31][32]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, schemas may draw on multiple gists and, thus, are not specific to any particular environment or location.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The integration of multiple gists, in turn, could give rise to spatial schemas [G] that are independent of a specific environment and the HPC.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Spatial navigation is thought to be guided by the internal representation of spatial relations in a specific environment, referred to as a cognitive map [G] 2,9 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Epstein, R. A., Patai, E. Z., Julian, J. B. & Spiers, H. J. The cognitive map in humans: spatial navigation and beyond. Nat. Neurosci. 20, 1504–1513 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [9] O’Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map (Clarendon Press, 1978).
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A process known as pattern separation [G] 65,66 keeps cognitive maps and gists distinct from one another, but they can work in concert with schemas to aid in navigation 38 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Rolls, E. T. On pattern separation in the primate, including human, hippocampus. Trends Cogn. Sci. 25, 920–922 (2021). source
- Not checked yetcites [66] Yassa, M. A. & Stark, C. E. Pattern separation in the hippocampus. Trends Neurosci. 34, 515–525 (2011). source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Zheng, L., Gao, Z., McAvan, A. S., Isham, E. A. & Ekstrom, A. D. Partially overlapping spatial environments trigger reinstatement in hippocampus and schema representations in prefrontal cortex. Nat. Commun. 12, 6231 (2021). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A spatial schema might be reinstated when one encounters similar elements in a novel environment, or when one must assimilate previously encountered elements with novel elements when a portion of a familiar environment is substantially altered.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gists, and the cognitive maps that relate to them, however, are not folded into schemas. They need to remain distinct from one another so that not all environments are viewed as alike -as would be the case if one only relied on schemas.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with, but are distinct from, cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As such, a spatial schema could be thought of as a generalizable spatial representation of the category of an environment, formed by integrating overlapping neural representations across similar environments.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A schema, by contrast, might facilitate learning of a novel environment that resembles a familiar one.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference between spatial gists and spatial schemas should be revealed at a neuroanatomical level.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spatial gists may be mediated by the anterior HPC (Fig. 1), although there is lesion evidence reviewed below to suggest that they do not depend on it, at least in humans.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Rats with HPC lesions but extensive experience with the village acquired those associations as quickly as controls did, whereas inexperienced HPC-lesioned rats took much longer.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Fogel, S., Rosenbaum, R. S. & Sekeres, M. Preserved spatial memory after hippocampal lesions: effects of extensive experience in a complex environment. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 273–275 (2005). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“K.C. was impaired, however, in remembering minor landmarks and perceptual details of familiar environments, despite having largely intact visuoperceptual processing abilities and semantic knowledge of those same places.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source
- Not checked yetcites [81] Herdman, K. A., Calarco, N., Moscovitch, M., Hirshhorn, M. & Rosenbaum, R. S. Impoverished descriptions of familiar routes in three cases of hippocampal/medial temporal lobe amnesia. Cortex 71, 248–263 (2015). This patient-lesion study provides converging evidence that the hippocampus is needed to support remote spatial memory for visuospatial details but not the gist of environments learned long ago. source
- Not checked yetcites [82] Rosenbaum, R. S., Cassidy, B. N. & Herdman, K. A. Patterns of preserved and impaired spatial memory in a case of developmental amnesia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 196 (2015). source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Representational similarity analyses [G] indicate that the representations of learned associations, particularly those that are previously established in memory, are integrated in anterior HPC and posterior mPFC, but remain distinct in the posterior HPC and anterior mPFC 49 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Schlichting, M. L., Mumford, J. A. & Preston, A. R. Learning-related representational changes reveal dissociable integration and separation signatures in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Nat. Commun. 6, 8151 (2015). source
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was accompanied by a more rapid shift of activity from HPC to vlPFC, reflecting reduced forgetting and accelerated systems consolidation.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“functional MRI (fMRI) data showed an activity shift from HPC to ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) for retrieval of learned associates after 24 hours, but that with overlearning (by 90 days), retrieval responses shifted to ventrolateral PFC (vlPFC), representing a process of semanticization.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [72] Sommer, T. The emergence of knowledge and how it supports the memory for novel related information. Cereb. Cortex 27, 1906–1921 (2017).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This was demonstrated in the case K.C., an individual with bilateral HPC damage, who could produce accurate sketch maps of the overall layout of his hometown (Fig. 3) and judge relative distances and directions between its major landmarks 27,81,82 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source
- Not checked yetcites [81] Herdman, K. A., Calarco, N., Moscovitch, M., Hirshhorn, M. & Rosenbaum, R. S. Impoverished descriptions of familiar routes in three cases of hippocampal/medial temporal lobe amnesia. Cortex 71, 248–263 (2015). This patient-lesion study provides converging evidence that the hippocampus is needed to support remote spatial memory for visuospatial details but not the gist of environments learned long ago. source
- Not checked yetcites [82] Rosenbaum, R. S., Cassidy, B. N. & Herdman, K. A. Patterns of preserved and impaired spatial memory in a case of developmental amnesia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 196 (2015). source
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Navigation ability in these animals was impaired after manipulating distal cues (for example, pictures on walls surrounding the maze), however, indicating that stable room geometry determined success.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Fogel, S., Rosenbaum, R. S. & Sekeres, M. Preserved spatial memory after hippocampal lesions: effects of extensive experience in a complex environment. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 273–275 (2005). source
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In the paper
“A spatial schema reflects the integration of spatial gists across multiple environments that have shared features, identified via statistical abstraction.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
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In the paper
“In rodents and humans, sleep has been found to enhance gist extraction from memory 89 , HPC spatial representations 101 and explicit knowledge of regions in space 29 -mechanisms that have been attributed to schema learning 22,63 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Memory consolidation, generalization and hippocampal replay.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Lewis, P. A. & Durrant, S. J. Overlapping memory replay during sleep builds cognitive schemata. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 343–351 (2011). source
- Not checked yetcites [101] Lee, A. K. & Wilson, M. A. Memory of sequential experience in the hippocampus during slow wave sleep. Neuron 36, 1183–1194 (2002). source
- Not checked yetcites [29] Noack, H., Schick, W., Mallot, H. & Born, J. Sleep enhances knowledge of routes and regions in spatial environments. Learn. Mem. 24, 140–144 (2017). source
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In the paper
“Human 'concept cells' seem to encode a stable representation of a specific person or landmark, regardless of size or viewing angle 104,105 , providing sparse codes [G] for visually invariant abstractions related to personal events 106 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [104] Quiroga, R. Q., Reddy, L., Kreiman, G., Koch, C. & Fried, I. Invariant visual representation by single neurons in the human brain. Nature 435, 1102–1107 (2005). source
- Not checked yetcites [105] Quiroga, R. Q. Neural representations across species. Science 363, 1388–1389 (2019). source
- Not checked yetcites [106] Quiroga, R. Concept cells: the building blocks of declarative memory functions. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 13, 587–597 (2012). source
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In the paper
“On the other hand, sleep enables the extraction of regularities across instances, the loss of contextual information and the retention of gist, as seen in representations in extra-hippocampal regions 89,97 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Memory consolidation, generalization and hippocampal replay.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Lewis, P. A. & Durrant, S. J. Overlapping memory replay during sleep builds cognitive schemata. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 343–351 (2011). source
- Not checked yetcites [97] Stickgold, R. & Walker, M. P. Sleep-dependent memory triage: evolving generalization through selective processing. Nat. Neurosci. 16, 139–145 (2013). source
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In the paper
“However, some spatial memories retain their detailed HPC representations in perpetuity, along with their schematic representation, and these representations interact with each other, with one or the other dominating depending on various conditions, including time since acquisition, task demands and retrieval cues 92,93 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Memory consolidation, generalization and hippocampal replay.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [92] Winocur, G. & Moscovitch, M. Memory transformation and systems consolidation. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17, 766–780 (2011). source
- Not checked yetcites [93] Sekeres, M. J., Winocur, G. & Moscovitch, M. The hippocampus and related neocortical structures in memory transformation. Neurosci. Lett. 680, 39–53 (2018). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Disruption of replay of HPC neuronal sequences in rodents during SWS 101,102 severely impairs the retrieval of spatial representations 103 , suggesting that replay mechanisms are needed for the consolidation of spatial memories.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Memory consolidation, generalization and hippocampal replay.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [101] Lee, A. K. & Wilson, M. A. Memory of sequential experience in the hippocampus during slow wave sleep. Neuron 36, 1183–1194 (2002). source
- Not checked yetcites [102] Wilson, M. A. & McNaughton, B. L. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. Science 265, 676–679 (1994). source
- Not checked yetcites [103] Girardeau, G., Benchenane, K., Wiener, S. I., Buzsaki, G. & Zugaro, M. B. Selective suppression of hippocampal ripples impairs spatial memory. Nat. Neurosci. 12, 1222–1223 (2009). source
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In the paper
“Geometric modifications are accompanied by more substantial changes in the firing patterns of place cells than are surface modifications 15,113,114 , suggesting that HPC remapping actively supports the role of geometry in the stability of spatial representations 115 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] Spiers, H., Hayman, R. M., Jovalekic, A., Marozzi, E. & Jeffery, K. J. Place field repetition and purely local remapping in a multicompartment environment. Cereb. Cortex 25, 10–25 (2015). source
- Not checked yetcites [113] Kubie, J. L., Levy, E. R. J. & Fenton, A. A. Is hippocampal remapping the physiological basis for context? Hippocampus https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.23160 (2019). source
- Not checked yetcites [114] Latuske, P., Kornienko, O., Kohler, L. & Allen, K. Hippocampal remapping and its entorhinal origin. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 11, 253 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [115] Hartley, T., Burgess, N., Lever, C., Cacucci, F. & O’Keefe, J. Modeling place fields in terms of the cortical inputs to the hippocampus. Hippocampus 10, 369–379 (2000). source
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, the HPC, guided by schemas, could extract the particular gist of the environment without attention to specific details.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Such remapping has been proposed to be conceived as the HPC performing 'hidden state inference', whereby sensory information is integrated with stored representations to create a 'belief' about current occupancy in the environment 116 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [116] Sanders, H., Wilson, M. A. & Gershman, S. J. Hippocampal remapping as hidden state inference. eLife 9, e51140 (2020). source
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In the paper
“The increasing similarity between firing patterns of schema cells was not driven by visual similarity between environments, as indicated by point-ofgaze maps 14,118 , but by their common spatial geometry 14 , and by past and future actions within the task structure 14,105 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Baraduc, P., Duhamel, J. R. & Wirth, S. Schema cells in the macaque hippocampus. Science 363, 635–639 (2019). Recordings from hippocampal neurons in the macaque monkey during virtual navigation show the existence of cells that generalize parts of similar environments across environments. source
- Not checked yetcites [118] Wirth, S., Baraduc, P., Plante, A., Pinede, S. & Duhamel, J. R. Gaze-informed, task-situated representation of space in primate hippocampus during virtual navigation. PLoS Biol. 15, e2001045 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [105] Quiroga, R. Q. Neural representations across species. Science 363, 1388–1389 (2019). source
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In the paper
“Geometric resemblance might explain findings that people are less likely to detect changes in surface properties than geometric properties of highly familiar and extensively experienced landmarks and scenes, whether tested directly by recognition or indirectly by eye-movements; if such changes are detected, the changes are at a global or coarse level 112 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [112] Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. Dramatic changes to well-known places go unnoticed. Preprint at PsyArXiv https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ypg96 (2020). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This process of biasing stored representations is akin to how schemas supported by the mPFC facilitate pattern separation to disambiguate overlapping representations: HPC cell remapping by modifying spatial firing patterns may enable the differentiation of similar experiences or locations.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A recent study that used a similar distributional learning paradigm during spatial navigation suggests that statistical pattern recognition also underlies spatial gist extraction and navigation search patterns in humans 119 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [119] Antony, J. et al. Spatial gist extraction during human memory consolidation. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 48, 929–941 (2022). Distributional learning during spatial navigation is examined in three behavioural experiments, demonstrating the extraction of spatial gist representations that decrease over time. source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, schemas themselves may be better represented by cell assemblies outside of the HPC than by single schema cells, at least in humans.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Human and rodent lesion studies suggest that although the anterior HPC may help to generate and support a spatial gist, anterior HPC is not necessarily required to maintain or retrieve spatial gists.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The influence of stored knowledge on segmentation of environments into subregions is suggested by studies showing that human spatial representations are prone to systematic biases 136,137 and may be hierarchically organized, similar to semantic and event knowledge 133,138,139 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [136] Tversky, B. Distortions in cognitive maps. Geoforum 23, 131–138 (1992). source
- Not checked yetcites [137] Poucet, B. Spatial cognitive maps in animals: new hypotheses on their structure and neural mechanisms. Psychol. Rev. 100, 163–182 (1993). source
- Not checked yetcites [133] Schick, W., Halfmann, M., Hardiess, G. & Mallot, H. A. Language cues in the formation of hierarchical representation of space. Cogn. Process. 16, S78–S78 (2015). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Thus, whereas the (posterior) HPC seems to support detailed cognitive maps, a network of extra-HPC regions, including the parahippocampal cortex (PHC), RSC and PPC, seems to support cognitive maps that have been transformed over repeated experiences navigating in a particular environment to form a 'spatial gist' -a summary of a specific environment 25,27,127,128 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] Frankland, P. W. & Bontempi, B. The organization of recent and remote memories. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6, 119–130 (2005). source
- Not checked yetcites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source
- Not checked yetcites [127] Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. fMRI studies of remote spatial memory in an amnesic person. Brain Cogn. 54, 170–172 (2004).
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“fMRI studies indicate that many of the same extra-HPC regions involved in the initial acquisition of spatial knowledge for large-scale environments are also involved in the retrieval of schematized spatial memory 27,83,128 and event schemas 22 , suggesting that the core elements of spatial schemas may be laid down at acquisition 92,[147][148][149][150] .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source
- Not checked yetcites [83] Rosenbaum, R. S., Ziegler, M., Winocur, G., Grady, C. L. & Moscovitch, M. “I have often walked down this street before”: fMRI studies on the hippocampus and other structures during mental navigation of an old environment. Hippocampus 14, 826–835 (2004). source
- Not checked yetcites [128] Hirshhorn, M., Grady, C., Rosenbaum, R. S., Winocur, G. & Moscovitch, M. Brain regions involved in the retrieval of spatial and episodic details associated with a familiar environment: an fMRI study. Neuropsychologia 50, 3094–3106 (2012). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These consolidation mechanisms might act on place cells in the HPC and on grid cells in the entorhinal cortex (ERC), which show repeating patterns of activity in an arrangement comparable to equilateral triangles that tile the environment 11 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [11] Moser, E. I., Moser, M.-B. & McNaughton, B. L. Spatial representation in the hippocampal formation: a history. Nat. Neurosci. 20, 1448 (2017). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The ERC may work with the HPC and occipital place area, which represent local geometry common across segments, and with the RSC, which integrates segments into a superordinate map, to give rise to a gist in the service of schema formation 39 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Peer, M. & Epstein, R. A. The human brain uses spatial schemas to represent segmented environments. Curr. Biol. 31, 4677–4688.e8 (2021). Collectively, refs 37–39 investigate the cognitive and neural precursors to, and properties of, schema formation in humans, including the effects of overlap with previously learned environments, segmentation, and the roles of the hippocampus, retrosplenial cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex. source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“According to one model 145 , the HPC and RSC are hubs of two largely overlapping networks that preferentially support allocentric and egocentric spatial representations, respectively (see also ref. 146 ).”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [145] Ekstrom, A. D., Huffman, D. J. & Starrett, M. Interacting networks of brain regions underlie human spatial navigation: a review and novel synthesis of the literature. J. Neurophysiol. 118, 3328–3344 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [146] Bicanski, A. & Burgess, N. A neural-level model of spatial memory and imagery. eLife 7, e33752 (2018). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Rodent HPC cells show repeated firing in multicompartment environments, with increased clustering of activity when the animal is near open doorways 15,16 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] Spiers, H., Hayman, R. M., Jovalekic, A., Marozzi, E. & Jeffery, K. J. Place field repetition and purely local remapping in a multicompartment environment. Cereb. Cortex 25, 10–25 (2015). source
- Not checked yetcites [16] Derdikman, D. et al. Fragmentation of grid cell maps in a multicompartment environment. Nat. Neurosci. 12, 1325–1332 (2009). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In either case, regionalization using physical barriers or metric distance travelled are both determined by the global properties of the environment.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Several brain regions have been implicated in neuroanatomical models of navigation, including the HPC, RSC, ERC, PHC, PPC, mPFC and inferior temporal cortex (ITC) 145 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [145] Ekstrom, A. D., Huffman, D. J. & Starrett, M. Interacting networks of brain regions underlie human spatial navigation: a review and novel synthesis of the literature. J. Neurophysiol. 118, 3328–3344 (2017). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The RSC has also been shown to integrate egocentric and allocentric spatial frames of reference 146,152 and to generalize local codes (that is, codes for specific regions, such as the southwest corner of a specific room) across geometrically similar environments (in this example, to the south-west corner of various rooms) 19,39,152 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [146] Bicanski, A. & Burgess, N. A neural-level model of spatial memory and imagery. eLife 7, e33752 (2018). source
- Not checked yetcites [152] Marchette, S. A., Vass, L. K., Ryan, J. & Epstein, R. A. Anchoring the neural compass: coding of local spatial reference frames in human medial parietal lobe. Nat. Neurosci. 17, 1598–1606 (2014). source
- Not checked yetcites [19] Marchette, S. A., Ryan, J. & Epstein, R. A. Schematic representations of local environmental space guide goal-directed navigation. Cognition 158, 68–80 (2017). source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“fMRI repetition suppression [G] effects in several brain regions, including the RSC, HPC and PHC in participants navigating to target landmarks in rooms within a virtual multi-level building revealed that the repetition suppression effect was similar across rooms that had the same layout, suggesting generalization of neural representations 130 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [130] Kim, M. & Maguire, E. A. Hippocampus, retrosplenial and parahippocampal cortices encode multicompartment 3D space in a hierarchical manner. Cereb. Cortex 28, 1898–1909 (2018). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The ERC achieves this outcome by learning the transition structure of an environment and the regularities that occur within it, offering a more generalized code that is optimal for spatial schema instantiation 157 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [157] Behrens, T. E. J. et al. What is a cognitive map? Organizing knowledge for flexible behavior. Neuron 100, 490–509 (2018). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Such a representation might take a schematic form, such that similar distances across different environments are processed similarly or by the same neural populations in the RSC 153,154 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [153] Patai, E. Z. et al. Hippocampal and retrosplenial goal distance coding after long-term consolidation of a real-world environment. Cereb. Cortex 29, 2748–2758 (2019). This fMRI study provides evidence that the retrosplenial cortex codes spatial information in familiar environments in line with extraction of spatial knowledge to cortical regions. source
- Not checked yetcites [154] Spiers, H. J., & Maguire, E. A. (2006). Thoughts, behaviour, and brain dynamics during navigation in the real world. Neuroimage, 31(4), 1826–1840. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Grid cells in the ERC are posited to provide a structural scaffold for episodic events and spatial representations 7 , with ERC acting as a mediator between HPC and neocortex by providing a geometric code for the global properties of the environment 155,156 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Bellmund, J. L. S., Gardenfors, P., Moser, E. I. & Doeller, C. F. Navigating cognition: spatial codes for human thinking. Science 362, eaat6766 (2018). source
- Not checked yetcites [155] Nau, M., Julian, J. B. & Doeller, C. F. How the brain’s navigation system shapes our visual experience. Trends Cogn. Sci. 22, 810–825 (2018). source
- Not checked yetcites [156] Nau, M., Navarro Schroder, T., Bellmund, J. L. S. & Doeller, C. F. Hexadirectional coding of visual space in human entorhinal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 21, 188–190 (2018). source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We suggest that schema instantiation involves pattern recognition and the regionalization of previously encountered spaces to extract a common geometric structure.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“One possible explanation for the different engagement of the posterior and anterior HPC in generalization relates to spatial scale, with the posterior HPC encoding room or junction spaces, and the anterior HPC encoding large-scale (outdoor) spaces 76 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] Poppenk, J., Evensmoen, H. R., Moscovitch, M. & Nadel, L. Long-axis specialization of the human hippocampus. Trends Cogn. Sci. 17, 230–240 (2013). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One approach to understanding how the built environment is organized and related to human behaviour is through the field of space syntax 166 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In this context, the anterior HPC provided a more global code (tracking global street connections), while the posterior HPC provided a more local code (tracking local street connections) 158 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [158] Javadi, A. H. et al. Hippocampal and prefrontal processing of network topology to simulate the future. Nat. Commun. 8, 14652 (2017). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Representations of navigation plans 159 , the regionalization of physical environments and the neural representations of physical environments 29,160 are all typically hierarchical -whereby a high-level structure encompasses multiple mid-level or low-level features.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [159] Balaguer, J., Spiers, H., Hassabis, D. & Summerfield, C. Neural mechanisms of hierarchical planning in a virtual subway network. Neuron 90, 893–903 (2016). source
- Not checked yetcites [29] Noack, H., Schick, W., Mallot, H. & Born, J. Sleep enhances knowledge of routes and regions in spatial environments. Learn. Mem. 24, 140–144 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [160] Schick, W., Halfmann, M., Hardiess, G. & Mallot, H. A. Language cues in the formation of hierarchical representation of space. Cogn. Process. 15, S63–S64 (2014).
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Buildings are similar to many objects, in that they are constructed by assembling smaller parts into a whole, whereas buildings differ from many objects in that buildings create volumes of space through the arrangement of objects, such as walls 166,167 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
- Not checked yetcites [167] Pallasmaa, J. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses (John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“'Form follows function' is an influential design principle often followed by architects; the structure (or geometry) of an artifact is determined by the function it is meant to serve [162][163][164] .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [162] Koolhaas, R. The Generic City (Sikkens Foundation, 1995).
- Not checked yetcites [163] Kristan, W. B. & Katz, P. Form and function in systems neuroscience. Curr. Biol. 16, R828–R831 (2006). source
- Not checked yetcites [164] Hillier, B., Penn, A., Hanson, J., Grajewski, T. & Xu, J. Natural movement: or, configuration and attraction in urban pedestrian movement. Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des. 20, 29–66 (1993). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Buildings also establish social importance and 'meaning' through embellishments and modifications to their surface properties and structural features 165 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [165] Penn, A. & Turner, J. S. Can we identify general architectural principles that impact the collective behaviour of both human and animal systems? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 373, 20180253 (2018). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Space syntax aims to identify the series of construction steps or local rules that result in a global spatial pattern.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, a building regulates the flow of air and individuals across its boundaries, similar to a living system 165 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [165] Penn, A. & Turner, J. S. Can we identify general architectural principles that impact the collective behaviour of both human and animal systems? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 373, 20180253 (2018). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A posterior region, such as AG, may bind the contents and the structure of experience at a higher level of abstraction than does the HPC 161 and, thus, is probably an important area for relating spatial gists to spatial schema (summarised in Fig. 1).”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [161] Summerfield, C., Luyckx, F. & Sheahan, H. Structure learning and the parietal cortex. Prog. Neurobiol. 184, 101717 (2020). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regions implicated in scene-processing, such as the parahippocampal place area and RSC, have a role in the integration of common local properties such as surface features.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Space syntax theorists have identified other elementary formulae besides the courtyard complex and the beady-ring templates, such as central spaces, blocks and ring streets.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Through qualitative analysis of verbal descriptions of Boston residents, Lynch found that the presence of these essential elements in their descriptions was associated with the ease with which navigators understand the spatial coherence of their environment 33 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Lynch, K. The Image of the City. Vol. 11 (MIT Press, 1960).
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Five elements -landmarks, paths, nodes, edges and districts -have been identified as building blocks of a common understanding of the space that is shared amongst people with extensive experience of the region.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As mentioned in the section on regionalization of space, findings from spatial cognition studies in humans show that semantic knowledge and language cues exert a powerful influence on human spatial judgements 29,138 and may contribute to spatial schemas.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Noack, H., Schick, W., Mallot, H. & Born, J. Sleep enhances knowledge of routes and regions in spatial environments. Learn. Mem. 24, 140–144 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [138] Waller, D. E. & Nadel, L. E. Handbook of Spatial Cognition (American Psychological Association, 2013). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Spatial forms have also been proposed to be a 'fossil' the reflects the social and psychological characteristics of a group of people that share common linguistic and cultural values 166,170 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
- Not checked yetcites [170] Levi-Strauss, C. Structural Anthropology Translated from the French by Jacobson, C. & Grundfest Schoepf, B. (Basic Books, 1963).
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“When navigating recently learned city streets in London, UK, activity in the anterior HPC increases when entering streets with greater global connections (that is, with higher integration) and decreases when entering streets that are less globally connected 176 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [176] Bettencourt, L. & West, G. A unified theory of urban living. Nature 467, 912 (2010). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Industrial cities in different regions of the world are suggested to exhibit scale-invariant structural characteristics (for example, road networks) 40,129 , whereas the number of nodes and their configuration depends on infrastructure development, size and other sociocultural factors 40 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] Lee, M., Barbosa, H., Youn, H., Holme, P. & Ghoshal, G. Morphology of travel routes and the organization of cities. Nat. Commun. 8, 2229 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [129] Batty, M. Cities and Complexity: Understanding Cities with Cellular Automata, Agent-Based Models, and Fractals (The MIT Press, 2007).
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“First, a city street network is transformed into a network of lines using its topological properties 34,[173][174][175] .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Filomena, G., Verstegen, J. & Manley, E. A computational approach to ‘The Image of the City’. Cities 89, 14–25 (2019). The authors apply a mathematical analysis to the layout of cities to identify hidden structures in the street layouts for regions. source
- Not checked yetcites [173] Manley, E., Addison, J. & Cheng, T. Shortest path or anchor-based route choice: a large-scale empirical analysis of minicab routing in London. J. Transp. Geogr. 43, 123–139 (2015). source
- Not checked yetcites [174] Manley, E., Orr, S. W. & Cheng, T. A heuristic model of bounded route choice in urban areas. Transp. Res. C. Emerg. Technol. 56, 195–209 (2015). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Space syntax has been used to study prototypical spatial patterns on a global scale (for example, across different street grids) 166,172 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
- Not checked yetcites [172] Peponis, J., Zimring, C. & Choi, Y. K. Finding the building in wayfinding. Environ. Behav. 22, 555–590 (1990). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The posterior HPC is also responsive on entering streets, but rather than signalling a global code, it reacts to the connectivity (for example, showing higher activity when entering a road with many connections than a road with dead-end).”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, a long straight main road can be represented as a single axial line [G] or as a large set of connected street segments [G].”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Recent work has shown that the connectivity of a space in view is reflected in the activity of the occipital place area 18 , but how this connectivity extends to active navigation is not known.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] McKenzie, S. et al. Hippocampal representation of related and opposing memories develop within distinct, hierarchically organized neural schemas. Neuron 83, 202–215 (2014). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Given that these statistical commonalities of mobility patterns characterize the underlying structure of a city 41,43 and navigational behaviours 34,117,178,179 , they provide support for the notion of a spatial schema for an environment with key elements that can be generalized to other environments that belong to a superordinate category 159 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] Lämmer, S., Gehlsen, B. & Helbing, D. Scaling laws in the spatial structure of urban road networks. Phys. A Stat. Mech. Appl. 363, 89–95 (2006). source
- Not checked yetcites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source
- Not checked yetcites [34] Filomena, G., Verstegen, J. & Manley, E. A computational approach to ‘The Image of the City’. Cities 89, 14–25 (2019). The authors apply a mathematical analysis to the layout of cities to identify hidden structures in the street layouts for regions. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Alongside the allocentric graph-theoretic indices such as integration and choice, measures that involve egocentric information have been derived within the from space syntax framework to characterize spatial relationships in scenes (also known as vista spaces).”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, viewshed analysis (which uses 2D polygons known as isovists to represent the visible area from a given vantage point) have been used to characterize local scenes 186 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H3] Geometric resemblance.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [186] Bonner, M. F. & Epstein, R. A. Computational mechanisms underlying cortical responses to the affordance properties of visual scenes. PLoS Comput. Biol. 14, e1006111 (2018). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We have discussed the distinction between geometric and surface properties as two forms of spatial representation that parallel the dissociable gist and detailed aspects of remote spatial memories.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A spatial schema is a consolidated distribution of spatial gists for a given prototype (panels a,d).”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“With extensive practice across 3 months, the rats show improved performance, indicated by increased digging time in the correct location and fewer errors when choosing the location in which to dig first.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Alonso, A., van der Meij, J., Tse, D. & Genzel, L. Naïve to expert: considering the role of previous knowledge in memory. Brain Neurosci. Adv. 4, 2398212820948686 (2020). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The RSC serves as a hub for translating information between two orthogonal frames: detailed or local cues versus coarse or global cues, and egocentric versus allocentric.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Environment geometry input is received by the entorhinal cortex (ERC).”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Statistical learning of spatial context is integrated in the angular gyrus (AG) and mPFC into spatial schemas and is continuously updated through reciprocal connections with HPC and other posterior regions.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“HPC-lesioned rats were severely impaired in room change and village rotation conditions, but performed well in the cue distortion condition.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Fogel, S., Rosenbaum, R. S. & Sekeres, M. Preserved spatial memory after hippocampal lesions: effects of extensive experience in a complex environment. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 273–275 (2005). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Schemas are dynamic knowledge structures formed by extracting generalizable common features of particular detailed episodic events.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A network of posterior regions, including parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and posterior parietal cortex (PPC), is involved in representing perceptual features and spatial relations.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Schemas may be built through specific expectations on the basis of a store of many repeated cognitive maps, culminating in a meta-map prediction of what lies ahead in the environment in which we are navigating.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) facilitates schema development by linking spatial features with goal-relevant actions and behaviours.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A cognitive map can vary in precision from a highly detailed map to a gist, whereas a schema is a knowledge structure that is extracted from multiple gist-like cognitive maps in a way that is similar to how schemas form from events.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Argentina and the USA have the largest gap in performance between those who grew up inside cites versus those who grew up outside cities, whereas Romania lies at the other end of the scale.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [117] Coutrot, A. et al. Entropy of city street networks linked to future spatial navigation ability. Nature 604, 104–110 (2022). This study reports evidence that growing up in griddy cities adapts navigators to navigate better in grid-like environments but less so in more disorganized environments. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although the overall spatial configuration of K.C.'s sketch map was intact, he included fewer streets and landmarks than did control participants.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Figure 3 | Sketch map test of remote spatial memory.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [213] Kok, P., Mostert, P. & de Lange, F. P. Prior expectations induce prestimulus sensory templates. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 10473–10478 (2017). source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Sketch maps drawn by other individuals with amnesia relating to bilateral hippocampal damage are similarly accurate in terms of overall layout yet similarly impoverished in detail 81,82 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Figure 3 | Sketch map test of remote spatial memory.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [81] Herdman, K. A., Calarco, N., Moscovitch, M., Hirshhorn, M. & Rosenbaum, R. S. Impoverished descriptions of familiar routes in three cases of hippocampal/medial temporal lobe amnesia. Cortex 71, 248–263 (2015). This patient-lesion study provides converging evidence that the hippocampus is needed to support remote spatial memory for visuospatial details but not the gist of environments learned long ago. source
- Not checked yetcites [82] Rosenbaum, R. S., Cassidy, B. N. & Herdman, K. A. Patterns of preserved and impaired spatial memory in a case of developmental amnesia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 196 (2015). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Participants who reported growing up in cities from the low-SNE countries were most impacted by environments in Sea Hero Quest with a high SNE, and marginally better at navigating gridlike environments with a low SNE.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [117] Coutrot, A. et al. Entropy of city street networks linked to future spatial navigation ability. Nature 604, 104–110 (2022). This study reports evidence that growing up in griddy cities adapts navigators to navigate better in grid-like environments but less so in more disorganized environments. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This pattern of performance suggests that the hippocampus is needed for detailed spatial representations, similar to its role in episodic memory [4][5][6]20 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Figure 3 | Sketch map test of remote spatial memory.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4][5][6]20
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Neural network models are powerful tools for understanding pattern recognition mechanisms that underlie visual perception, whereas Bayesian generative models explain how abstract prior knowledge is used to make inferences about familiar and novel stimuli 28,[201][202][203] .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 28,[201][202][203]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“L.G.'s knowledge of the routes and of the locations of landmarks along them were intact; he needed only to be reminded of the goal for the representation to be expressed appropriately during navigation.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [199] Rosenbaum, R. S., Winocur, G., Grady, C. L., Ziegler, M. & Moscovitch, M. Memory for familiar environments learned in the remote past: fMRI studies of healthy people and an amnesic person with extensive bilateral hippocampal lesions. Hippocampus 17, 1241–1251 (2007). source
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) features prominently in the literature on event schemas in humans 22,190 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Gilboa, A. & Marlatte, H. Neurobiology of schemas and schema-mediated memory. Trends Cogn. Sci. 21, 618–631 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [190] Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. The case of KC: contributions of a memory-impaired person to memory theory. Neuropsychologia 43, 989–1021 (2005). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This value attribution may be reflected in the finding that familiar places are drawn larger than unfamiliar places 141 , as well-known places are most likely to be valued or to contain reward.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [141] Jafarpour, A. & Spiers, H. Familiarity expands space and contracts time. Hippocampus 27, 12–16 (2017). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Formal artificial intelligence models provide flexibility in planning and account for a range of biological processes at neural and behavioural levels 204 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [204] Kriegeskorte, N. & Douglas, P. K. Cognitive computational neuroscience. Nat. Neurosci. 21, 1148–1160 (2018). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies that focus on mathematical analyses of topology have helped us gain insight into spatial patterns that characterize different types of environments 43,135,208 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source
- Not checked yetcites [135] Louail, T. et al. Uncovering the spatial structure of mobility networks. Nat. Commun. 6, 6007 (2015). source
- Not checked yetcites [208] de Cothi, W. J. et al. Predictive maps in rats and humans for spatial navigation. Curr. Biol. 32, 3676–3689.e5 (2022). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, sections of the urban fabric of Mumbai can be deformed using topological transformations into the suburban neighbourhoods of Las Vegas or into the regular grid structure of New York city blocks 208 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [208] de Cothi, W. J. et al. Predictive maps in rats and humans for spatial navigation. Curr. Biol. 32, 3676–3689.e5 (2022). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The patterns of individuals' movement to and from urban hubs across cities can be collected using GIS (geographic information system) tools and phone-usage data 40,43,177,210 .”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] Lee, M., Barbosa, H., Youn, H., Holme, P. & Ghoshal, G. Morphology of travel routes and the organization of cities. Nat. Commun. 8, 2229 (2017). source
- Not checked yetcites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source
- Not checked yetcites [177] Schneider, C. M., Belik, V., Couronne, T., Smoreda, Z. & Gonzalez, M. C. Unravelling daily human mobility motifs. J. R. Soc. Interface 10, 20130246 (2013). source
- Not checked yetcites [210] Berry, B. J. & Garrison, W. L. The functional bases of the central place hierarchy. Econ. Geogr. 34, 145–154 (1958). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The various posterior regions play specialized roles in representing components of surface properties and their relations and/or coding of these properties within local or global scales.
“although the various posterior regions play specialized roles in representing components of surface properties and their relations and/or coding of these properties within local or global scales”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Taken together, our findings suggest that memory of navigational episodes emerges from the interaction of multiple parallel spatial representations, each supported by a widespread hippocampal–neocortical network2,5,38.”
From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“For natural environments, memory of spatial navigational episodes mostly occurs against the backdrop of semantic knowledge and patterns extracted from previous experiences that shape our expectations and guide actual behaviour2,5.”
From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Studies suggest that memory of these representational modes relies on at least partially dissociable neural substrates5,11,12.”
From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Instead, several details fade, whereas other aspects remain salient, thus suggesting that long-term spatial memory of navigational episodes may shift from a detailed cognitive map to a more gist-like spatial representation5.”
From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In this framework, cognitive maps, spatial gist and spatial schema are not three successive steps of abstraction of an initial experience but rather three classes of spatial representations with distinct relationships to navigational episodes that exist in parallel and mutually influence each other5.”
From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Thus, visual stimuli may have guided behaviour by prompting the retrieval of schematic representations of previously visited environments that share spatial features with the Berlin Zoo5.”
From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“They may thus be conceived as abstracted templates that may ultimately contribute to an overall spatial ‘zoo’-schema that is independent of a distinct navigational episode5.”
From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Introduction
“Navigation ability in these animals was impaired after manipulating distal cues (for example, pictures on walls surrounding the maze), however, indicating that stable room geometry determined success.”
§ From cognitive maps to spatial schemas > [H1] Conclusions
“HPC-lesioned rats were severely impaired in room change and village rotation conditions, but performed well in the cue distortion condition.”
Citations
Cites
Items 201–201 of 201
Cortico-hippocampal communication by way of parallel parahippocampal-subicular pathways.
Lavenex (2000) · Pure Amsterdam UMC · doi:10.1002/1098-1063(2000)10:4 · Cited by 1
Research works printed but not linked: 12
- O’Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map (Clarendon Press, 1978).
- Bartlett, F. Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology (Cambridge University Press, 1932).
- Lynch, K. The Image of the City. Vol. 11 (MIT Press, 1960).
- Sommer, T. The emergence of knowledge and how it supports the memory for novel related information. Cereb. Cortex 27, 1906–1921 (2017).
- Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. fMRI studies of remote spatial memory in an amnesic person. Brain Cogn. 54, 170–172 (2004).
- Batty, M. Cities and Complexity: Understanding Cities with Cellular Automata, Agent-Based Models, and Fractals (The MIT Press, 2007).
- Schirmer, P. M. & Axhausen, K. W. A multiscale classification of urban morphology. J. Transp. Land Use 9, 101–130 (2016).
- Schick, W., Halfmann, M., Hardiess, G. & Mallot, H. A. Language cues in the formation of hierarchical representation of space. Cogn. Process. 15, S63–S64 (2014).
- Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
- Pallasmaa, J. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses (John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
- Wertheimer, M. in A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology (ed Willis. E) (Humanities Press, 1950).
- McNamee, D., Wolpert, D. & Lengyel, M. in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 29 (NIPS, 2016).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Ekstrom, A. D., & Hill, P. F. (2023) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2023.03.001 · Cited by 125
Schemas, reinforcement learning and the medial prefrontal cortex
Bein, O., & Niv, Y. (2025) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-024-00893-z · Cited by 77
CityGPT: Empowering Urban Spatial Cognition of Large Language Models
Feng, J., Liu, T., Du, Y., Guo, S., Lin, Y., & Li, Y. (2025) · ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) · doi:10.1145/3711896.3736878 · Cited by 86
A theory of hippocampal function: New developments
Rolls, E. T., & Treves, A. (2024) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2024.102636 · Cited by 54
Wayfinding across ocean and tundra: what traditional cultures teach us about navigation
Velasco, P. F., & Spiers, H. J. (2023) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2023.09.004 · Cited by 49
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Farzanfar, D., Spiers, H. J., Moscovitch, M., & Rosenbaum, R. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Toronto (CA)
- University College London (GB)
- York University (CA)
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Neuroscience
- Published
- 2022-11-21
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 63-79
- ISSN
- 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0048
- OpenAlex
- W4309646944
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 198
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 24
- FWCI
- 1.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Canada First Research Excellence Fund
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban Design and Spatial Analysis
- Keywords
- spatial schema, cognitive maps, event schemas, spatial memory, episodic memory, spatial navigation, memory consolidation, urban layout, urban analytics, scale, regionalization, non-human animals
- MeSH terms
- Memory Consolidation, Animals, Cognition, Humans
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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