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Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
Abstract
6.1464) is often used to predict people's behaviors.However, it has shown poor predictive ability potentially because of its typical scoring method (the D score), which is affected by the across-trial variability in the IAT data and might provide biased estimates of the construct.Linear Mixed-Effects Models (LMMs) can address this issue while providing a Rasch-like parametrization of accuracy and time responses.In this study, the predictive abilities of D scores and LMM estimates were compared.The LMMs estimates showed better predictive ability than the D score, and allowed for in-depth analyses at the stimulus level that helped in reducing the acrosstrial variability.Implications of the results and limitations of the study are discussed.
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“like physiological measures, the validity of most indirect measures has been established via stimuli of known va- lence, and this knowledge came from studies using self-report measures (e.g., Fazio et al. 1986, Greenwald et al. 1998, Payne et al. 2005).This issue creates the same inferential paradox described for physiological measures.”
From Unawareness of Attitudes, Their Environmental Causes, and Their Behavioral Effects (2025) · cites this paper as Greenwald et al. 1998
In the citing paper
“Some studies (Caliskan et al. 2017;Greenwald et al. 1998) have found that names associated with European Americans are more likely to be linked with pleasantness, while non-European names tend to be associated with unpleasantness.”
From Towards trustworthy LLMs: a review on debiasing and dehallucinating in large language models (2024) · cites this paper as Greenwald et al. 1998
In the citing paper
“Generalized effects were found both in the same task (novel pictures, close generalization) and in a different task, employing words instead of pictures: an approach avoid alcohol Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998).”
From Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation (2011) · cites this paper as Greenwald et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“For example, we tend to show implicit biases towards members of our own race and against those of other races, even when we don't hold any explicitly biased attitudes.”
From Changing bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition (2015) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“These implicit racial biases can be measured behaviourally using an implicit association task (IAT: See Glossary [15]), but also can be seen at the neural level in the form of distinct patterns of brain activity [2].”
From Changing bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition (2015) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“The design of the task followed that of the original version used by Greenwald et al. (1998).”
From Propranolol reduces implicit negative racial bias (2012) · cites this paper as Greenwald et al. (1998)
In the citing paper
“Techniques that lead people to recognize their unconscious biases include exercises where they are prompted to compare what they would do and what they should do in a variety of intergroup circumstances,45 and recently developed procedures (such as the Implicit Association Test52,53) that can reveal unconscious prejudice and stereotypes.”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“Within research on aging, tools such as the Implicit Association Test [29] and Measurement of Aging Anxiety [46] are used to assess attitudes towards older adulthood (e.g., [34]).”
From Addressing age-related bias in sentiment analysis, (2018) · cites this paper as [29]
In the citing paper
“Prior work has demonstrated that response time biases can reflect implicit conceptual conflict (30, 31), such that slowing reflects cognitive interference induced when pairing incongruent constructs and speeding reflects facilitative association when pairing congruent constructs.”
From Development of self-protective biases in response to social evaluative feedback (2017) · cites this paper as [30]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1998
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1464-1480
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4231165370
- Semantic Scholar
- 10cc2d53ff8349d3432b8f822d58e4ddee3d475e
- Cited by
- 9,210
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 353 · 2025: 426 · 2024: 404 · 2023: 502 · 2022: 525 · 2021: 603 · 2020: 710 · 2019: 613 · 2018: 565 · 2017: 438 · 2016: 524 · 2015: 439 · 2014: 369 · 2013: 356 · 2012: 330
- FWCI
- 57.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- Implicit Association Test, implicit cognition, individual differences, D-score, linear mixed models, predictive validity, response accuracy, reaction time (psychology), construct bias
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