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The Generality of Working Memory Capacity: A Latent-Variable Approach to Verbal and Visuospatial Memory Span and Reasoning.
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A latent-variable study examined whether verbal and visuospatial working memory (WM) capacity measures reflect a primarily domain-general construct by testing 236 participants in 3 span tests each of verbal WM. visuospatial WM, verbal short-term memory (STM), and visuospatial STM. as well as in tests of verbal and spatial reasoning and general fluid intelligence (Gf). Confirmatory' factor analyses and structural equation models indicated that the WM tasks largely reflected a domain-general factor, whereas STM tasks, based on the same stimuli as the WM tasks, were much more domain specific. The WM construct was a strong predictor of Gf and a weaker predictor of domain-specific reasoning, and the reverse was true for the STM construct. The findings support a domain-general view of WM capacity, in which executive-attention processes drive the broad predictive utility of WM span measures, and domain-specific storage and rehearsal processes relate more strongly to domain-specific aspects of complex cognition.
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“The speci fi c cognitive capacity measures used in our experiments are associated with domain-general capabilities that support fundamental processes such as learning, logical reasoning, abstract thought, problem solving, and creativity (e.g., Cattell 1987; Kane et al. 2004).”
From Brain Drain: The Mere Presence of One’s Own Smartphone Reduces Available Cognitive Capacity (2017) · cites this paper as Kane et al. 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“There is a substantial domain-general component to such working memory tasks (e.g., Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003; Kane, Hambrick, Tuholski, Wilhelm, Payne, & Engle, 2004; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001) that has been interpreted as reflecting central executive function.”
From Working memory in children with reading disabilities (2006) · cites this paper as Kane, Hambrick, Tuholski, Wilhelm, Payne, & Engle, 2004
In the citing paper
“Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“There is substantial evidence that it is not. Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2004
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Self-citationKofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., & Raiker, J. S. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9357-6 · Cited by 239
Working memory training involves learning new skills
Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Norris, D. (2019) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.003 · Cited by 225
“Although tests of visuo-spatial serial recall such as Corsi blocks and spatial span are considered to tap STM, the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006…”
BackgroundHow do (some) people make a cognitive map? Routes, places, and working memory.
Weisberg, S. M., & Newcombe, N. S. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000200 · Cited by 219
Burgess, G. C., Gray, J. R., Conway, A. R. A., & Braver, T. S. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0024695 · Cited by 231
Working Memory Deficits and Social Problems in Children with ADHD
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Metaphorically speaking: cognitive abilities and the production of figurative language
Beaty, R. E., & Silvia, P. J. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0258-5 · Cited by 216
Human Mental Workload: A Survey and a Novel Inclusive Definition
Longo, L., Wickens, C. D., Hancock, G., & Hancock, P. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883321 · Cited by 222
Working memory and fluid intelligence in young children
Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., Conway, A. R. A., & Gathercole, S. E. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.07.003 · Cited by 212
Working Memory in Children With Developmental Disorders
Alloway, T. P., Rajendran, G., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409335214 · Cited by 203
Computerized working memory training: Can it lead to gains in cognitive skills in students?
Alloway, T. P., Bibile, V., & Lau, G. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.10.023 · Cited by 193
Broadway, J. M., & Engle, R. W. (2010) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/brm.42.2.563 · Cited by 184
Self-citationIndividual differences in working memory capacity and divided attention in dichotic listening
Colflesh, G. J. H., & Conway, A. R. A. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196824 · Cited by 180
Dunlosky, J., & Kane, M. J. (2007) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210600926075 · Cited by 164
Self-citationSwanson, H. L. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025114 · Cited by 161
Central and peripheral components of working memory storage
Cowan, N., Saults, J. S., & Blume, C. L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0036814 · Cited by 156
On the impacts of working memory training on executive functioning
Salminen, T., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00166 · Cited by 148
Richmond, L. L., Wolk, D., Chein, J., & Olson, I. R. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00657 · Cited by 143
Genes Unite Executive Functions in Childhood
Engelhardt, L. E., Briley, D. A., Mann, F. D., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2015) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615577209 · Cited by 136
Working memory capacity and the scope and control of attention
Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., & Engle, R. W. (2015) · Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-015-0899-0 · Cited by 132
Self-citationSöderqvist, S., Nutley, S. B., Ottersen, J., Grill, K. M., & Klingberg, T. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00271 · Cited by 127
Dissociative tendencies and individual differences in high hypnotic suggestibility
Terhune, D. B., Cardeña, E., & Lindgren, M. (2011) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2010.503048 · Cited by 125
Why does working memory span predict complex cognition? Testing the strategy affordance hypothesis
Bailey, H., Dunlosky, J., & Kane, M. J. (2008) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.36.8.1383 · Cited by 121
Self-citationWorking memory, fluid intelligence, and science learning
Yuan, K., Steedle, J., Shavelson, R., Alonzo, A., & Oppezzo, M. (2006) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2006.08.005 · Cited by 124
Fournier-Vicente, S., Larigauderie, P., & Gaonac’h, D. (2008) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.04.004 · Cited by 113
Stepankova, H., Lukavsky, J., Buschkuehl, M., Kopecek, M., Ripova, D., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034913 · Cited by 101
Clarifying Inhibitory Control: Diversity and Development of Attentional Inhibition
Howard, S. J., Johnson, J., & Pascual-Leone, J. (2014) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2014.03.001 · Cited by 96
Individual differences in long-term memory.
Unsworth, N. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000176 · Cited by 99
Training working memory: Limits of transfer
Sprenger, A. M., Atkins, S. M., Bolger, D. J., Harbison, J. I., Novick, J. M., Chrabaszcz, J. S., Weems, S. A., Smith, V., Bobb, S., Bunting, M. F., et al. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.013 · Cited by 96
Sensory-cognitive interactions in older adults
Humes, L. E., & Young, L. A. (2016) · Ear & Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000303 · Cited by 94
The structure of working memory and how it relates to intelligence in children
Giofrè, D., Mammarella, I. C., & Cornoldi, C. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.06.006 · Cited by 92
Interference control, working memory capacity, and cognitive abilities: a latent variable analysis.
Unsworth, N. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.12.003 · Cited by 89
Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.
Engelhardt, L. E., Mann, F. D., Briley, D. A., Church, J. A., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000195 · Cited by 91
Beaty, R. E., Zeitlen, D. C., Baker, B. S., & Kenett, Y. N. (2021) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100859 · Cited by 86
Morrison, A. B., & Richmond, L. L. (2020) · Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-019-0201-4 · Cited by 87
Genetic Associations Between Executive Functions and a General Factor of Psychopathology
Harden, K. P., Engelhardt, L. E., Mann, F. D., Patterson, M. W., Grotzinger, A. D., Savicki, S. L., Thibodeaux, M. L., Freis, S. M., Tackett, J. L., Church, J. A., et al. (2020) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.05.006 · Cited by 87
Toward a taxonomy of attention shifting: Individual differences in fMRI during multiple shift types
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Developmental transformations in the structure of executive functions
Hartung, J., Engelhardt, L. E., Thibodeaux, M. L., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104681 · Cited by 78
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A yoga program for cognitive enhancement
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Why is working memory capacity related to matrix reasoning tasks?
Harrison, T. L., Shipstead, Z., & Engle, R. W. (2015) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0473-3 · Cited by 74
Self-citationDo the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level?
Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000426 · Cited by 76
Self-citationN-back Versus Complex Span Working Memory Training
Blacker, K. J., Negoita, S., Ewen, J. B., & Courtney, S. M. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0044-1 · Cited by 74
A framework for executive function in the late elementary years.
Cirino, P. T., Ahmed, Y., Miciak, J., Taylor, W. P., Gerst, E. H., & Barnes, M. A. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000427 · Cited by 71
Gibson, B. S., Gondoli, D. M., Johnson, A. C., Steeger, C. M., Dobrzenski, B. A., & Morrissey, R. A. (2011) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.551186 · Cited by 71
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2010) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374748-8.00001-9 · Cited by 66
Why is working memory performance unstable? A review of 21 factors
Blasiman, R. N., & Was, C. A. (2018) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1472 · Cited by 65
The mechanisms of far transfer from cognitive training: Review and hypothesis.
Greenwood, P. M., & Parasuraman, R. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000235 · Cited by 62
Dörrenbächer, S., Müller, P. M., Tröger, J., & Kray, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01275 · Cited by 59
“FIGURE 8 | Far-transfer performance on inhibitory control: mean latencies (ms) and error rates (%) (upper left panel) as well as respective interference costs (upper right panel) of the Stroop task; mean latencies (ms) and error rates (%) (lower left panel) as well as respective interference costs (lower right panel)…”
MethodInfluentialStenfors, C. U. D., Marklund, P., Magnusson Hanson, L. L., Theorell, T., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083351 · Cited by 58
Metadata
- Authors
- Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Southern Illinois University Edwardsville (US)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2004-06
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 189-217
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W2048613949
- Cited by
- 1,679
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 64 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 101 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 115 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 103 · 2016: 107 · 2015: 91 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 106 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 61.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Kenyon (Kenyon College) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- working memory capacity, domain generality, verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory, short-term memory, memory span, fluid intelligence, spatial reasoning, verbal reasoning, executive attention
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Decision Making, Female, Generalization, Psychological, Humans, Male, Memory, Space Perception, Visual Perception, Vocabulary
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