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Cited by 613Gut microbiota and healthNutritional Studies and DietInfant Nutrition and Health

Diet and the Intestinal Microbiome: Associations, Functions, and Implications for Health and Disease

Open access
Albenberg, Lindsey G., Wu, Gary D.·2014·Gastroenterology
DOI 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.01.058PMC PMC4216184
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Abstract

The mutual relationship between the intestinal microbiota and its mammalian host is influenced by diet. Consumption of various nutrients affects the structure of the microbial community and provides substrates for microbial metabolism. The microbiota can produce small molecules that are absorbed by the host and affect many important physiological processes. Age-dependent and societal differences in the intestinal microbiota could result from differences in diet. Examples include differences in the intestinal microbiota of breastfed vs formula-fed infants or differences in microbial richness in people who consume an agrarian plant-based vs a Western diet, which is high in meat and fat. We review how diet affects the structure and metabolome of the human intestinal microbiome and may contribute to health or the pathogenesis of disorders such as coronary vascular disease and inflammatory bowel disease.

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Crossref · 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.01.058

Cites

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Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 113 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    The initial pattern of intestinal colonization depends on mode of delivery.

    “The initial intestinal colonization pattern depends upon mode of delivery1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Dominguez-Bello, 2011, Development of the human gastrointestinal microbiota and insights from high-throughput sequencing, Gastroenterology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Diet influences the mutual relationship between the intestinal microbiota and its mammalian host.

    “The mutual relationship between the intestinal microbiota and its mammalian host is influenced by diet.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisenone given

    Human milk oligosaccharides are indigestible glycans that remain intact through the intestinal tract to the colon, where they nourish specific colonic bacteria.

    “MOS are indigestible glycans that remain whole as they travel through the intestinal tract to the colon, where they nourish specific colonic bacteria.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    A healthy human fetus develops in an environment thought to be largely sterile.

    “A healthy human fetus develops in an environment that is thought to be largely sterile1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Dominguez-Bello, 2011, Development of the human gastrointestinal microbiota and insights from high-throughput sequencing, Gastroenterology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    In that infant, weaning was accompanied by a shift toward a more stable, adult-like microbiota.

    “There was also a shift towards a more stable, adult-like microbiota with weaning3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Koenig, 2011, Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. 34
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bifidobacteria are thought to modulate the intestinal immune system and have been shown to increase immunoglobulin A production.

    “Bifidobacteria are also thought to modulate the intestinal immune system and have been shown to increase the production of immunoglobulin A14.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Ouwehand, 2002, The role of the intestinal microflora for the development of the immune system in early childhood, Eur J Nutr

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Vaginally born infants are initially colonized by vaginal taxa such as Lactobacillus and Prevotella, whereas Cesarean-born infants are initially colonized by skin microbiota.

    “Infants born vaginally are initially colonized by bacterial taxa found in the vagina, such as Lactobacillus and Prevotella, whereas infants who are born by Cesarean section are initially colonized by bacteria found in the skin microbiota2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Dominguez-Bello, 2010, Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Human milk oligosaccharides are bioactive compounds and the third largest component of human milk.

    “Human milk oligosaccharides (MOS) are bioactive compounds that are the third largest component of human milk10.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] LoCascio, 2010, Broad conservation of milk utilization genes in Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis as revealed by comparative genomic hybridization, Appl Environ Microbiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Within the first year of life, there are significant inter-individual differences in intestinal microbiota composition, but some similarities also exist.

    “Within the first year of life, there are significant inter-individual differences in the composition of the intestinal microbiota, yet some similarities exist.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Significant gut colonization begins immediately after delivery, and bacteria can be found in an infant's first meconium.

    “Significant colonization of the gut begins immediately after delivery although, remarkably, bacteria can be found in an infant's first meconium2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Dominguez-Bello, 2010, Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many studies show a higher proportion of Bifidobacteria in breast-fed infants than in formula-fed infants, and this difference is thought to be secondary to human milk oligosaccharide effects.

    “Some of the differences in the composition of the intestinal microbiota in breast-fed vs formula-fed infants are thought to be secondary to the effects of MOS on these bacteria—many studies have shown an increased proportion of Bifidobacteria in breast-fed infants 6, 7, 11 compared to formula-fed infants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [6] Stark, 1982, The microbial ecology of the large bowel of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first year of life, J Med Microbiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] Yoshioka, 1983, Development and differences of intestinal flora in the neonatal period in breast-fed and bottle-fed infants, Pediatrics source

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    • cites [11] Balmer, 1989, Diet and faecal flora in the newborn: breast milk and infant formula, Arch Dis Child source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Individuals consuming an agrarian plant-based diet and those consuming a Western diet high in meat and fat differ in microbial richness.

    “differences in microbial richness in individuals consuming an agrarian plant-based vs a Western diet, which is high in meat and fat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    After primary inoculation, infants are regularly exposed to microbes and their microbial diversity increases rapidly.

    “After this primary inoculation, infants are regularly exposed to microbes, and diversity increases rapidly3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Koenig, 2011, Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Consumption of different nutrients changes the structure of the microbial community and supplies substrates for microbial metabolism.

    “Consumption of various nutrients affects the structure of the microbial community and provides substrates for microbial metabolism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A greater proportion of Prevotella in the human intestinal microbiota marks residence in an agrarian culture, whereas a greater proportion of Bacteroides is associated with residence in more-industrialized regions.

    “a greater proportion of Prevotella in the human intestinal microbiota is a marker of residence in an agrarian culture, whereas a greater proportion of Bacteroides is associated with residence in more-industrialized regions38.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Arumugam, 2011, Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In elderly individuals, differences in intestinal microbiota taxonomy are associated with residence environment; the most extreme differences between community residence and long-term residential care are attributed to diet, with community residents consuming more fiber and less fat.

    “differences in the taxonomy of the intestinal microbiota were associated with residence in different environments. The most extreme differences were observed in community residence vs long-term residential care, attributed to differences in diet—community residents typically consume diets higher in fiber and lower in fat42.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Claesson, 2012, Gut microbiota composition correlates with diet and health in the elderly, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Short-term dietary interventions in healthy humans cause statistically significant and rapid alterations in intestinal microbiota composition, but the effect magnitude is modest relative to inter-subject variability and taxonomic changes are inconsistent among individuals.

    “Short-term dietary interventions in healthy humans lead to statistically significant and rapid alterations in the composition of the intestinal microbiota, but the magnitude of the effect is modest relative to inter-subject variability in the intestinal microbiota, and changes in taxonomy are not consistent among individuals30.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Wu, 2011, Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes, Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Aerobic organisms appear more prevalent in feces of breast-fed infants, while anaerobic and facultatively anaerobic organisms are more common in feces of formula-fed infants.

    “aerobic organisms seem to be more prevalent in the feces of breast-fed infants, whereas anaerobic and facultatively anaerobic organisms, which preferentially use anerobic glycolysis, are more commonly found in the feces of formula-fed infants6.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Stark, 1982, The microbial ecology of the large bowel of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first year of life, J Med Microbiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The MetaHit consortium proposed that individuals can be classified into enterotypes dominated by Prevotella, Bacteroides, or Ruminococcus.

    “The MetaHit consortium has proposed that individuals can be classified as having intestinal microbiota predominantly composed of Prevotella or Bacteroides; a third group has higher proportions of Ruminococcus, compared with the others. These categories have been named “enterotypes”38.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Arumugam, 2011, Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Certain Bacteroides strains can digest human milk oligosaccharides, suggesting a potential competitive relationship between Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides in breast-fed infants.

    “certain Bacteroides strains are able to digest MOS,22 suggesting a potential competitive relationship between Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides in breast-fed infants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] Marcobal, 2011, Bacteroides in the infant gut consume milk oligosaccharides via mucus-utilization pathways, Cell Host Microbe source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A better term may be enterogradient, based on whether Bacteroides or Prevotella dominate, because these two genera generally do not exist in equal proportions in the human intestine.

    “A better term might be enterogradient, based on whether Bacteroides or Prevotella dominate the intestinal microbial community—it appears that these 2 genera generally do not exist in equal proportions in the human intestine 41.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Faust, 2012, Microbial co-occurrence relationships in the human microbiome, PLoS Comput Biol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Bacteroides and Prevotella are taxonomically and functionally similar yet do not co-exist in the intestine, possibly because of competition within the same niche.

    “However, Bacteroides and Prevotella are taxonomically and functionally similar genera, yet do not co-exist in the intestine; this is an exception to the model, possibly resulting from competition within the same niche41.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Faust, 2012, Microbial co-occurrence relationships in the human microbiome, PLoS Comput Biol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Children in Burkina Faso had greater amounts of Prevotella, lower amounts of Bacteroides, greater overall microbial richness, and higher short-chain fatty acid production than European children.

    “The microbiota of children in Burkina Faso had greater amounts of Prevotella, lower amounts of Bacteroides, overall greater microbial richness, and produced higher levels of short-chain fatty acids than the microbiota of European children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] De Filippo, 2010, Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Foods rich in phosphatidylcholine are a major source of choline.

    “Foods rich in phosphatidylcholine are a major source of choline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because diet can affect the structure and function of the gut microbiome, diet may be involved in IBD pathogenesis or serve as a therapeutic target.

    “Because of the effects that diet can have on the structure and function of the intestinal microbiome, it is reasonable to suspect that diet may be involved in the pathogenesis of IBD, or even a potential therapeutic target.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Studies associating diet with the intestinal microbiome consistently link agrarian-based diets high in fruits, vegetables, and fiber with distinct bacterial taxa, increased bacterial richness at the taxonomic and gene level, and better health compared with Western diets.

    “In composite, studies associating diet with the intestinal microbiome have consistently associated agrarian-based diets (high in fruits, vegetables, and fiber) with distinct bacterial taxa, an increase in bacterial richness at the taxonomic and gene level, and better health, compared with Western diets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Co-abundance groups were associated with health status in elderly individuals, and diets higher in fruits, vegetables, and fiber were linked to lower frailty.

    “Co-abundance groups were associated with the health status of elderly individuals—diets higher in fruits, vegetable, and fiber (associated with community residence) were linked to lower levels of frailty.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Claesson, 2012, Gut microbiota composition correlates with diet and health in the elderly, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Catabolism of choline by the intestinal microbiota forms trimethylamine, which the liver metabolizes into trimethylamine oxide; trimethylamine oxide is strongly associated with increased risk for coronary vascular disease in humans.

    “Catabolism of choline by the intestinal microbiota results in the formation of the gas, trimethylamine (TMA), which is metabolized by the liver into trimethylamine oxide (TMAO)—a small molecule that is strongly associated with the increased risk for coronary vascular disease in humans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [57] Wang, 2011, Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [58] Tang, 2013, Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk, N Engl J Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables in higher-fiber diets and energy-restricted diets were both associated with increased bacterial gene richness.

    “increased consumption of fruits and vegetables in higher-fiber diets and energy-restricted diets were both associated with increased bacterial gene richness (Figure 2)43, 44.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [43] Cotillard, 2013, Dietary intervention impact on gut microbial gene richness, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] Le Chatelier, 2013, Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Trimethylamine oxide promotes atherosclerosis in animal models, providing the first link between dietary lipid intake, the intestinal microbiota, and risk for atherosclerosis.

    “TMAO was also found to promote the development of atherosclerosis in animal models, providing the first link between dietary lipid intake, the intestinal microbiota, and the risk for the development of atherosclerosis57.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Wang, 2011, Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A systematic review found that high intake of total fats, polyunsaturated fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, and meat was associated with increased risk of CD and UC; high fiber and fruit intake was associated with decreased risk of CD; and high vegetable intake was associated with decreased risk of UC.

    “A systematic review concluded that diets with high levels of total fats, polyunsaturated fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, and meat were associated with an increased risk of CD and UC; high fiber and high fruit intake were associated with a decreased risk of CD, whereas high vegetable intake was associated with a decreased for UC65.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] Hou, 2011, Dietary intake and risk of developing inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review of the literature, Am J Gastroenterol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Diet might affect intestinal fungal communities, which have been associated with the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases.

    “diet might also affect intestinal fungal communities, which have been associated with pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD)49.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Iliev, 2012, Interactions between commensal fungi and the C-type lectin receptor Dectin-1 influence colitis, Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Indigestible carbohydrates in the diet are fermented by the intestinal microbiota to produce short-chain fatty acids, which regulate immune function, intestinal hormone production, and lipogenesis.

    “indigestible carbohydrates in the diet are fermented by the intestinal microbiota to produce short-chain fatty acids, which regulate immune function54, 55, intestinal hormone production, and lipogenesis56.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [54] Maslowski, 2009, Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [55] Smith, 2013, The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis, Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [56] Samuel, 2008, Effects of the gut microbiota on host adiposity are modulated by the short-chain fatty-acid binding G protein-coupled receptor, Gpr41, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased bacterial gene richness was associated with human health, whereas lower bacterial richness was associated with obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and inflammatory disorders.

    “increased bacterial gene richness was also associated with human health, whereas lower bacterial richness was associated with obesity, insulin resistance, dylipidemia, and inflammatory disorders.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [43] Cotillard, 2013, Dietary intervention impact on gut microbial gene richness, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] Le Chatelier, 2013, Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings support that diet affects the structure and metabolome of the gut microbiome and is important in disease pathogenesis.

    “These findings support the effects of diet on the structure and metabolome of the gut microbiome and its importance in disease pathogenesis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dietary antigens can stimulate the mucosal immune system, so bowel rest with total parenteral nutrition has been used to treat some IBD patients.

    “Because dietary antigens can stimulate the mucosal immune system, bowel rest with total parenteral nutrition (TPN) has been used to treat certain patients with IBD72.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72] Graham, 2002, Nutritional factors in inflammatory bowel disease, Gastroenterol Clin North Am source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the IL10 knockout model, colitis exacerbation may involve Bilophila wadsworthia directly promoting a T helper 1 cell-mediated immune response and/or producing hydrogen sulfide, which disrupts the intestinal epithelial barrier.

    “In this model system, the exacerbation of colitis may involve a direct effect of Bilophila wadsworthia, which promote a T helper 1 cell-mediated immune response and/or the production of hydrogen sulfide, a toxic small molecule that disrupts intestinal epithelial barrier function70.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Sartor, 2012, Gut microbiota: Diet promotes dysbiosis and colitis in susceptible hosts, Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Bowel rest may alter the gut microbiota in a way that reduces IBD symptoms, because fasting affects the gut microbiota in mice.

    “It is possible that bowel rest alters the gut microbiota in a way that reduces symptoms of IBD, because fasting has been shown to have an effect on the gut microbiota in mice75.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [75] Crawford, 2009, Regulation of myocardial ketone body metabolism by the gut microbiota during nutrient deprivation, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a prospective study of 30 CD patients treated with bowel rest and TPN, 25 (83%) achieved initial remission, but relapse was common.

    “In a prospective study of 30 patients with CD treated with bowel rest and TPN, 25 (83%) achieved initial remission, but relapse was common73.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Muller, 1983, Total parenteral nutrition as the sole therapy in Crohn's disease—a prospective study, Br J Surg source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Milk fat consumption alters bile acid composition, promotes expansion of the sulfite-reducing pathobiont Bilophila wadsworthia, and exacerbates colitis in IL10 knockout mice.

    “Consumption of milk fat has been shown to alter bile acid composition, promoting expansion of the sulphite-reducing pathobiont Bilophila wadsworthia and exacerbating colitis in IL10 knockout mice69.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Devkota, 2012, Dietary-fat-induced taurocholic acid promotes pathobiont expansion and colitis in Il10-/- mice, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Nutritional therapy is effective for CD, but its mechanism of action has not been characterized.

    “However, nutritional therapy has been shown to be effective for patients with CD, although its mechanism of action has not been characterized.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: EEN has no serious associated side effects.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    EEN with elemental, semi-elemental, and defined formula diets has been widely studied for inducing CD remission and is considered first-line therapy in some regions.

    “Exclusive enteral nutrition (EEN) with elemental, semi-elemental, and defined formula diets have been widely studied for their ability to induce remission in patients with CD and are considered first-line therapy in certain parts of the world76, 77.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [76] Sandhu, 2010, Guidelines for the management of inflammatory bowel disease in children in the United Kingdom, J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [77] Caprilli, 2006, European evidence based consensus on the diagnosis and management of Crohn's disease: special situations, Gut source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: EEN has no serious associated side effects.
37 of 37

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Breastfeeding has established health benefits.

    “Given the health benefits associated with breast feeding, there are ongoing attempts to develop infant formulas that are more similar in composition and function to breast milk.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Diet has a role in development of many human gastrointestinal diseases (colon cancer, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and steatosis, irritable bowel syndrome, celiac sprue) and several of these are also associated with alterations in the gut microbiota.

    “Diet has a role in development of many human gastrointestinal diseases (colon cancer, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and steatosis, irritable bowel syndrome, celiac sprue) and several of these are also associated with alterations in the gut microbiota.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A direct link between diet, the intestinal microbiome, and disease pathogenesis has not been demonstrated for most of these illnesses, even in animal models.

    “However, a direct link between diet, the intestinal microbiome, and disease pathogenesis has not been demonstrated for most of these illnesses, even in animal models.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EEN has no serious associated side effects.

    “EEN is an alternative to potent pharmacological agents and has no serious associated side effects.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Extreme dietary shifts are thought to illicit a more pronounced effect.

    “Extreme dietary shifts, however, are thought to illicit a more pronounced effect [41].”

    From Effect of Diet on the Gut Microbiota: Rethinking Intervention Duration (2019) · cites this paper as [41]

  • The magnitude of the effect on the gut microbiota in short-term dietary interventions is thought to be relatively modest in relation to the inter-individual variability of the microbial profile.

    “The magnitude of the effect on the gut microbiota in short-term dietary interventions is thought to be relatively modest in relation to the inter-individual variability of the microbial profile [41].”

    From Effect of Diet on the Gut Microbiota: Rethinking Intervention Duration (2019) · cites this paper as [41]

  • Residence in industrialised countries and consumption of Western diets, mainly omnivore-type, apparently lead to a gut microbiota composition more associated with disease.

    “Conversely, residence in industrialised countries and consumption of Western diets, which are mainly omnivore-type diets, apparently lead to a composition of the microbiota that is more associated with different types of disease.3”

    From High-level adherence to a Mediterranean diet beneficially impacts the gut microbiota and associated metabolome (2016) · cites this paper as [3]

  • The intestinal microbiome can be considered a useful biomarker of long-term consumption of healthy or unhealthy diets.

    “The intestinal microbiome can be considered a useful biomarker of long-term consumption of healthy or unhealthy diets.3”

    From High-level adherence to a Mediterranean diet beneficially impacts the gut microbiota and associated metabolome (2016) · cites this paper as [3]

  • Extreme dietary changes, such as a ketogenic diet, produce immediate profound changes in the human gut microbiome, while less dramatic interventions produce mild to moderate changes that vary from person to person and tend to be less than inter-individual variability.

    “Extreme dietary changes, such as adoption of a ketogenic diet, produce immediate profound changes in the human gut microbiome. Less dramatic interventions produce mild to moderate changes that vary from person to person and tend to be less than inter-individual variability.155”

    From The Gut Microbiome and the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [155]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The stated direction of IBD risk reverses the earlier dietary associations

    Minor

    "Respectively" assigns increased IBD risk to an agrarian plant-based diet and decreased risk to a Western diet. Earlier, the paper associates fiber, fruit, and vegetables with lower IBD risk and meat and fats with higher risk.

1 of 1

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Authors
Albenberg, L. G., & Wu, G. D.
Affiliations
  • Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (US)
  • University of Pennsylvania (US)
Corresponding author
Wu, Gary D.
ORCID
Venue
Gastroenterology
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2014-05
Volume
146
Issue
6
Pages
1564-1572
ISSN
0016-5085 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1053/j.gastro.2014.01.058
PMC
PMC4216184
OpenAlex
W2067791097
Cited by
606
References
85
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 13
FWCI
4.40
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Gastroenterology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute of General Medical Sciences (R01GM103591)
  • National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK089472, UH2/3 DK083981, UH3DK083981, UH2DK083981)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Infant Nutrition and Health
Keywords
diet, gut microbiota, microbial metabolites, host-microbe interactions, breastfeeding, infant formula, plant-based diet, Western diet, coronary vascular disease, inflammatory bowel disease
MeSH terms
Animals, Bacteria, Diet, Gastrointestinal Diseases, Health Status, Humans, Intestinal Mucosa, Intestines, Host-Pathogen Interactions, Metabolomics, Metabolome, Microbiota, Dysbiosis

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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