The DOI matches its Crossref record; 404 of the 404 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 389 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic
Open accessAbstract
SUMMARY: Dirofilariasis represents a zoonotic mosaic, which includes two main filarial species ( Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens ) that have adapted to canine, feline, and human hosts with distinct biological and clinical implications. At the same time, both D. immitis and D. repens are themselves hosts to symbiotic bacteria of the genus Wolbachia , the study of which has resulted in a profound shift in the understanding of filarial biology, the mechanisms of the pathologies that they produce in their hosts, and issues related to dirofilariasis treatment. Moreover, because dirofilariasis is a vector-borne transmitted disease, their distribution and infection rates have undergone significant modifications influenced by global climate change. Despite advances in our knowledge of D. immitis and D. repens and the pathologies that they inflict on different hosts, there are still many unknown aspects of dirofilariasis. This review is focused on human and animal dirofilariasis, including the basic morphology, biology, protein composition, and metabolism of Dirofilaria species; the climate and human behavioral factors that influence distribution dynamics; the disease pathology; the host-parasite relationship; the mechanisms involved in parasite survival; the immune response and pathogenesis; and the clinical management of human and animal infections.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Dirofilariasis is a zoonotic mosaic caused mainly by *Dirofilaria immitis* and *D. repens*, with dogs as major reservoirs, cats and humans as less suitable hosts, and *Wolbachia* symbionts shaping pathology and treatment. The review synthesizes global epidemiology, clinical disease, diagnosis, treatment, and host-parasite immunology, emphasizing emergence/expansion and major knowledge gaps.
Key findings
- Approximately 1,782 human dirofilariasis cases have been reported: 372 pulmonary and 1,410 subcutaneous/ocular; *D. immitis* pulmonary cases predominate in the Americas, while *D. repens* subcutaneous/ocular cases predominate in the Old World.
- Canine *D. immitis* occurs worldwide in tropical and temperate regions, with prevalence examples including 1 to 12% in the United States, up to 48.8% on the Gulf Coast, 2.3 to 45% in Brazil, and 5 to 74% in Argentina; *D. repens* is exclusive to the Old World.
- Feline *D. immitis* infections tend to occur in the same areas as canine infections but at 5 to 20% of canine prevalence rates; cats often have low parasite burdens, transient or absent microfilaremia, and can develop heartworm-associated respiratory disease.
- *Wolbachia* are maternally transmitted filarial symbionts involved in molting and embryogenesis; *Wolbachia* surface protein (WSP) drives Th1 proinflammatory responses, and doxycycline is recommended by the American Heartworm Society for beneficial effects in heartworm management.
Methods
- Narrative review of human and animal dirofilariasis covering morphology, biology, protein composition, metabolism, climate and human behavioral factors, pathology, host-parasite relationships, immune response, and clinical management.
- Evidence synthesized from published literature, retrospective case reviews, seroepidemiological surveys, experimental and clinical studies, and global prevalence reports; no new primary data are presented.
- Main analysis is qualitative synthesis, with tables and figures summarizing proteins, human case data, vector species, and host-specific aspects of dirofilariasis.
Limitations
- The paper states that knowledge of the genome, proteome, biochemistry, metabolism, molting, pathogenesis, and survival mechanisms of *D. immitis* and *D. repens* remains limited, with human dirofilariasis having the greatest dearth of knowledge.
- The paper notes substantial underreporting and misdiagnosis, especially for pulmonary human cases, and states that retrospective reviews portray only “the tip of the iceberg”; epidemiological data are also limited in many regions, notably Africa.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review without a described systematic search or quality appraisal, conclusions rely on heterogeneous studies and reported cases, so prevalence and case estimates may be biased by surveillance and reporting differences.
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Claims the paper makes
251 Not checked yet · 39 Own interpretation · 29 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 1 Own result · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Together with mass spectrometry, proteomics allowed the simultaneous identification of numerous proteins, comprising 39 proteins from D. immitis and 15 from D. repens, many of which were represented by several isoforms (157,158,313).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Classical and Proteomic Approaches to the Study of Proteins in Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [157] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper reports using two-dimensional electrophoresis and mass spectrometry to identify numerous D. immitis proteins; its Table 1 lists multiple spots for some proteins. But it reports 35 different proteins, not 39, and does not report identifying 15 D. repens proteins. The passage reporting the count is labeled Abstract in our copy; no page number is available. (LLM, conf=0.89)
- Not checked yetcites [158] source
- Not checked yetcites [313] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Subcutaneous/ocular infections caused by Dirofilaria species other than D. repens are quite rare in the Old World (45,315).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [45] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The case report (www.ijmm.org; page unavailable) describes an eyelid infection caused by D. tenuis in India and says humans occasionally acquire animal filariae. It does not establish that subcutaneous or ocular infections from species other than D. repens are rare across the Old World, or compare their frequency with D. repens infections. (LLM, conf=0.75)
- Supportedcites [315] source
In the copy’s Dirofilaria discussion (indexed as Abstract; page unavailable), the authors report more than 400 human D. repens cases across Europe, Asia, and Africa, most involving subcutaneous or tissue around the eye. They place the human cases of other named subcutaneous or ocular Dirofilaria species chiefly in North America and say no human D. ursi-like infections had been reported in Japan or Russia. Together, these passages support the claim’s broad geographic comparison. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In addition, some key features that are considered for worm species identification, including cuticular ridge size, ridge numbers, and ridge-to-ridge distance, are highly variable at different body areas of the same worm and even within a single transverse section, thereby rendering these criteria unreliable for diagnosis (315).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [315] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the Americas, D. immitis pulmonary dirofilariasis predominates.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
plainn = 116- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“On the contrary, in Japan, most human cases (152) have been attributed to D. immitis (226,275,368).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the Old World, where D. immitis and D. repens cocirculate in populations of animal reservoirs, subcutaneous/ocular dirofilariasis cases involving D. repens (n ϭ 1,370) largely predominate over pulmonary dirofilariasis cases (35), even in areas where D. immitis is highly endemic (391).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35]
- Not checked yetcites [391] source
plainn = 1,370- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“By reviewing data for the whole territory of Russia between 1915 and 2008, we have found that researchers reported 570 subcutaneous/ocular dirofilariasis cases (103).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [103]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Seroepidemiological studies of residents of areas of endemicity reported high rates of infection similar to those of canine reservoirs of the same areas: 21% and 28% for D. immitis in the western Iberian Peninsula and Tenerife (Canary Islands), respectively (129, 344, 395); 10 to 30% in different isoclimatic regions of Grand Canary Island (282); 32.3% for D. immitis in northern Italy and 19.5% for”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [129]
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plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In this decade (2000 to 2010), subcutaneous/ocular dirofilariasis expanded from southern to central and northern Europe (149,391,393).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is a selective uptake of nutrients through both the digestive tract and the cuticle in microfilariae and adult worms.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The worldwide distribution of human dirofilariasis, as it is currently known (Fig. 6), does not coincide exactly with that of canine dirofilariasis, mainly due to the lack of data.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Approximately 1,782 human dirofilariasis cases have been reported, 372 of which were pulmonary and 1,410 of which were subcutaneous/ocular cases.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
hedgedn = 1,782- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the United States, 116 cases have been reported, originating primarily in the southeast regions, where canine prevalence rates are highest (47,226,285,299,300,400,411,423,448).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47]
- Not checked yetcites [226]
- Not checked yetcites [285]
plaincorrelationaln = 116- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Epidemiological studies of vectors from around the world indicate that the prevalence of Dirofilaria is lower in mosquitoes than in vertebrate hosts: 1.06 to 1.77% in Aedes polynesiensis in American Polynesia (85), 1.04% in Aedes vexans in Turkey (51), 6.2% in Aedes taeniorhynchus in the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) (253), 10% in Culex theileri in Iran (23), 2.3% in Ae. albopictus, 1.38% in Anophe”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilaria spp. in Vector Species
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [85]
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hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In South America, around 50 cases have been found, mainly in southwestern Brazil (273,358,442) and sporadically in Costa Rica, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia (39,65,370,442).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [273]
- Not checked yetcites [358]
- Not checked yetcites [442]
plainn = 50- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Numerous human cases have also been reported for the European Union (586 subcutaneous/ocular and 33 pulmonary cases), Russia (622 subcutaneous/ocular and 3 pulmonary cases), and Sri Lanka (more than 132 subcutaneous/ocular cases).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
plainn = 33- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the United States, some epidemiological studies have registered seroprevalences of 13.8% and 16.3% for anti-D.immitis IgG and IgE, respectively, in children of Hawaii (112); 27% (IgG) and 5% (IgE) in inhabitants of Maryland (230); and 5.2% in Illinois (378).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [112]
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The disease usually has a chronic progression.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adult worms live over 7 yr”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Endothelial cells also increase the expression levels of adhesion/transmigration molecules (intercellular adhesion molecule [ICAM], platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule [PECAM], and migration vascular cell adhesion molecule [VCAM]) and cellular proliferation molecules (E-cadherin and vascular endothelial grow factor [VEGF]).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some of these stimuli are also triggered by D. immitis somatic antigen (DiSA).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the prevalences of D. immitis among the canine populations of each zone are significantly different: 25.47% and 30.4% in the stepparic and mild climate zones, respectively; 13.57% in the dry desert climate zone; and 10% in the temperate cold climate zone (282).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [282] source
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main route for energy generation is anaerobic glycolysis with lactate as a main end product.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Initially, the damages affect the arteries, spreading later to the lung parenchyma and the right heart chambers.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The expression levels of IL-4 and IL-10 are increased, and antibodies related to the Th2-type response arise: IgG1 (dogs) or IgE (humans).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
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In the paper
“In contrast, the aerobic metabolism of carbohydrates predominates in microfilariae (188), and oxygen is required for motility although apparently not for survival (207).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Energy Generation and Molting in Dirofilaria Species
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [188]
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In the paper
“At the same time, both D. immitis and D. repens are themselves hosts to symbiotic bacteria of the genus Wolbachia”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [134]
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In the paper
“Adult D. immitis worms are regarded as homolactic fermenters because lactate is the main (or only) product of monosaccharide lysis produced by the worms (Fig. 4), indicating that their metabolism is mainly anaerobic (207).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Energy Generation and Molting in Dirofilaria Species
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [207]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In addition, D. immitis and D. repens are responsible for human pulmonary and subcutaneous/ocular dirofilariasis, respectively, throughout the world (324,391).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > INTRODUCTION
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- Not checked yetcites [324]
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In the paper
“These findings suggest that symbiotic bacteria are essential for larval development in vertebrate hosts and for the long-term survival of adult worms (263).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Role of Wolbachia Symbiotic Bacteria in Development and Biology of Dirofilaria Species
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [263]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“D. repens worms cause subcutaneous nodules and can reach the ocular region in human patients (321).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [321]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Mosquitoes' susceptibility and resistance to infection are genetically determined and controlled by a gender-linked recessive allele, with separate genes coding for susceptibility and resistance to D. immitis and D. repens (74).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Both D. immitis and D. repens demonstrate poor vertebrate host specificity given that they can infect numerous mammalian species (34).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34]
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In the paper
“Nematode molting is regulated by ecdysteroid hormones, which play a similar role in insects (31).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Molting.
What the sources say
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Humans and cats are less suitable hosts (261), in which parasite development is dramatically modified compared with the patterns in dogs.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [261]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Immature D. immitis worms can reach a branch of the human pulmonary artery, triggering an inflammatory response that destroys the worms, occasionally resulting in pulmonary nodules (391).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [391]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Adults can live over 7 years, and microfilariae live as long as 2 years (435).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [435]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Adult D. repens worms generally take residence in the subcutaneous tissues of definitive hosts, although they can also be found in the abdominal cavity and within connective muscular fasciae (148), where they achieve sexual maturity at 6 to 9 m.p.i.(252).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [148] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In cats, the maturation of adult D. immitis worms extends up to 8 m.p.i.; these worms are shorter than those found in dogs, with a shorter life expectancy (approximately 2 years maximum), and they generally do not produce microfilariae.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [252]
- Not checked yetcites [261]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“D. repens worms are smaller than D. immitis worms: females are 100 to 170 mm in length and 4.6 to 6.3 mm in diameter, and males are 50 to 70 mm in length and 3.7 to 4.5 mm in diameter (252).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE BIOLOGY OF DIROFILARIA SPECIES Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [252]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Those studies suggested that Wolbachia bacteria are involved in molting and embryogenesis of filariae (28), whereas filariae contribute amino acids for bacterial growth (140).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Role of Wolbachia Symbiotic Bacteria in Development and Biology of Dirofilaria Species
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28]
- Not checked yetcites [140]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 1997, a prevalence of 30% was reported for D. repens (14), whereas in 2011, 20.25% of dogs were infected with Dirofilaria spp., 44.7% of which were infected with D. repens, 30.3% of which were infected with D. immitis, and 25% of which were coinfected with both species (197).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [197] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In South America, Labarthe and Guerrero (220) found increasing prevalence rates in Colombia (from 4.8% to 8.4%) and Argentina (from 3.5% to 5.1%) and declining rates in Brazil (from 7.9% to 2%) based on comparisons of the earliest and most recently published reports from those countries.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [220]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Highly variable prevalence rates have been reported, ranging from 16% in Illinois (308) and 43% in Florida (139) to 71 to 100% in coyotes, red wolves, and their hybrids in Texas, where D. immitis is considered an important cause of morbidity and mortality for these species (101).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Wild Carnivores
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [308]
- Not checked yetcites [139]
- Not checked yetcites [101]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, in two other foci, the Northern California Coastal Range and south of the San Francisco Bay, the prevalence increased 4-fold throughout the same period and reached levels similar to those reported for the Sierra Nevada region, suggesting a spread of the parasite from this region toward the Pacific coast (366).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Wild Carnivores
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [366]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the United States, feline dirofilariasis has been reported in 29 states, with prevalence rates from 3% to 19%, with the highest rates in the areas with the highest levels of endemicity in dogs, and has been found in both feral and domestic cats.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Feline Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [309]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In Italy, the prevalence of D. immitis exceeds 50% in the broad area of endemicity of the Po river valley, and more moderate rates are observed in the central areas (147); in contrast, D. repens is present throughout the country (420), with a prevalence rate of 30% in the Po river valley (418).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [147]
- Not checked yetcites [420]
- Not checked yetcites [418]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Foxes infected with both D. immitis and D. repens in Italy (247, 254) and foxes and jackals infected with D. immitis in Bulgaria (reviewed in reference 261) have been found.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Wild Carnivores
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Studies performed in the United States from 2002 to 2005 demonstrated that the incidences of cardiopulmonary dirofilariasis had increased in 30 states, decreased in 17 states, and remained steady in 3 states, with a total increase of over 5,000 infected animals during this period (170).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [170]
boostedn = 5,000- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In Spain, one infection of a wolf and sporadic infections of foxes have been reported for different areas of the country (154,250,383).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Wild Carnivores
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [154]
- Not checked yetcites [250]
- Not checked yetcites [383]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“D. immitis affects canine populations in most countries of the Americas except Chile, where it has not been found despite epidemiological surveys, and French Guiana and Uruguay, where studies have not been conducted (170, 220, 278, 442, 445) (Fig. 5).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [170]
- Not checked yetcites [220]
- Not checked yetcites [278]
- Not checked yetcites [442]
- Not checked yetcites [445]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The prevalence rates of D. immitis and D. repens in Greece are 10% and 30%, respectively (333)”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [333]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In Central and South America, dirofilariasis prevalence rates range from 20% to 42% in cities on the Gulf Coast of Mexico, from 20.4% to 63.2% in the Caribbean (the Bahamas, Curaçao, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico), from 2.3% to 45% in Brazil, and from 5% to 74% in Argentina (6,211,218,220,251,442).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6]
- Not checked yetcites [211]
- Not checked yetcites [218]
- Not checked yetcites [220]
- Not checked yetcites [251]
- Not checked yetcites [442]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study conducted on different ecosystems, the highest prevalence rate was found for agricultural areas (32%), whereas semiarid regions showed much lower rates (1.7%), and no infections were found in mountain foxes (161).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Wild Carnivores
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [161]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These changes could be partially attributed to the growing interest of the scientific community in dirofilariasis, especially with respect to human infections, and to climate change, which has increased the range of specific vectors of Dirofilaria spp. in some regions.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > PREVALENCE AND DISTRIBUTION DYNAMICS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Climate change has increased the range of specific vectors of Dirofilaria spp. in some regions.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As described above, the epidemiological profile of canine dirofilariasis in Europe is characterized by the presence of D. immitis and D. repens, the coexistence of both species in some countries, and their expansion within countries where they are traditionally endemic and toward northern and central Europe (most noticeably D. repens) (Fig. 5).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dirofilariasis is spread throughout the United States, with a 1 to 12% prevalence rate (226).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Canine Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [226]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Among the relocated animals, 48.8% of dogs and 3.9% of cats were positive for heartworm, thus contributing to the geographical dissemination of dirofilariasis (229).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [229]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Specific identification by the localization of enzymatic activity in recovered larvae or PCRbased filarial DNA amplification (130) has demonstrated vector activity for D. repens by Anopheles maculipennis (142), Aedes aegypti (94), Mansonia uniformis (41), Mansonia annulifera and Armigeres obturbans (171), and Aedes albopictus (77).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilaria spp. in Vector Species
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [142]
- Not checked yetcites [94]
- Not checked yetcites [41]
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Global warming affects host-parasite systems by influencing the amplification and emergence of parasite populations, inducing changes in the development and survival rates of both parasites and vectors, and altering seasonal transmission dynamics (68).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [68] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, the prevalence remains at 40% in Podenco Canario hounds (a native breed of hunting and guard dog), which are kept in poor conditions and exposed to mosquitoes without chemoprophylaxis (279, 282).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [279]
- Not checked yetcites [282] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The combination of those changes with climate change is driving mosquitoes into large areas of temperate regions and contributing to changes in the global distribution of dirofilariasis.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mosquito colonization, development, and activity are regulated by climate, primarily temperature and humidity, and temperature also influences Dirofilaria sp.L3 development inside mosquitoes.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In Grand Canary Island, the prevalence of D. immitis increased from 28% to 58.9% between 1988 and 1998 (279, 360), followed by a decrease to 19.2% in 2011 (281), coinciding with the widespread use of chemoprophylaxis.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [279]
- Not checked yetcites [360]
- Not checked yetcites [281] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, dirofilariasis transmission is influenced by two factors that affect each of the two components of the worms' life cycle: (i) human behavior with respect to pets and (ii) climatic factors that allow for the presence of competent vector populations and Dirofilaria sp.larval development in these vectors.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Transmission of Dirofilaria spp. in a given region depends on the presence of a minimum number of dogs infected with adult worms producing microfilariae and on the presence of one or more mosquito species capable of transmitting the parasite.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“One example is the Asian tiger mosquito, Ae. albopictus, which was introduced into the Americas and Europe by the commercial tire trade through tires harboring mosquito larvae and which is spreading rapidly in newly colonized areas (3,165,352) and becoming established in regions on both continents where dirofilariasis is endemic.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3]
- Not checked yetcites [165]
- Not checked yetcites [352]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Retrospective reviews of reported cases offer only a partial view of human dirofilariasis; i.e., they portray only “the tip of the iceberg” (391), and regions of endemicity showing vectors with zooanthropophilic habits probably have higher frequencies of human infections than reported in the literature.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [391]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is estimated that a total increase of 1.1°C to 6.4°C in temperature all over the world will be effected by the end of this century (186).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [186]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“There is currently a scientific consensus regarding the phenomenon of climate change due to human activities (427).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [427]
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“With respect to dirofilariasis, climate change is lengthening annual periods of mosquito activity, shortening larval development periods, and increasing transmission in many geographical regions.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [68] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“There are no experimental data regarding pathogenic mechanisms, although these alterations and lesions have been attributed to both mechanical and immunopathological processes (164).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Subcutaneous and Ocular Dirofilariasis in Animal Reservoirs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [164]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“To date, the longest-known residence of a single nodule is 13 years (42), during which the nodule underwent calcification, whereas a 2-year follow-up of a single nodule did not reveal any modifications to its radiological features (301).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [42]
- Not checked yetcites [301]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In previous reports, times to nodule formation of 2, 3, and 8 months have been reported (191,206,304).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [191]
- Not checked yetcites [206]
- Not checked yetcites [304]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, C. pipiens, which has been found to be infected by Dirofilaria spp., is highly abundant in various regions of endemicity in Europe and Asia, and its populations remain active throughout the summer; consequently, C. pipiens is considered a potential primary vector for dirofilariasis wherever it resides (10,30,286), although other species in the same areas can contribute to transmission”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Complete L3 development requires 130 HDUs within the mosquito life span, which is estimated to be 30 days, and development will be completed independent of temperature fluctuations below the 14°C threshold during this period (245).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [245]
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Otherwise, the spread of the disease across previously infectionfree regions permits parasite introduction into naïve canine populations, which are less resistant than those residing in regions of endemicity.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although single nodules appear most frequently, multiple lesions have also been described, with a maximum of five occurring in the same individual (206).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [206]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clinical manifestations have been classified into two clinical syndromes (377): multifocal nodular dermatitis, which is generally localized to the face, and prurigo papularis dermatitis.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Subcutaneous and Ocular Dirofilariasis in Animal Reservoirs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [377]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Extradermic symptoms include conjunctivitis (46%), anorexia (35%), vomiting (26%), fever (25%), lethargy (20%), and lymphadenomegaly (10%) (417, 418).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Subcutaneous and Ocular Dirofilariasis in Animal Reservoirs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [417]
- Not checked yetcites [418]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Ae. albopictus has been shown to be a natural vector for both D. immitis and D. repens in Italy and for D. immitis in Taiwan and the United States (79,221,235).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [79]
- Not checked yetcites [221]
- Not checked yetcites [235]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Subcutaneous dirofilariasis in dogs is commonly associated with the presence of adult D. repens worms in subcutaneous tissues (see Fig. S2 in the supplemental material) and/or subcutaneous nodules (Fig. 12) (164), although they can occupy other sites, including the ocular conjunctiva (178).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Subcutaneous and Ocular Dirofilariasis in Animal Reservoirs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [164]
- Not checked yetcites [178]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Cases involving intravitreous infection in dogs are unusual and may be caused by D. repens (172, 178) or, rarely, by D. immitis (102).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Subcutaneous and Ocular Dirofilariasis in Animal Reservoirs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [172]
- Not checked yetcites [178]
- Not checked yetcites [102]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, Medlock et al. (270) demonstrated that in the United Kingdom, the temperatures during two summer seasons between 1995 and 2000 were warm enough to allow the complete development of Dirofilaria larvae in the southern regions, and in five of those summers, such conditions allowed L3 transmission in the areas surrounding London.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [270]
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies by Vezzani et al. (441,442) demonstrated that dirofilariasis in Argentina has a seasonal transmission pattern like that in Europe and established a potential transmission window of nearly 6 months for Buenos Aires.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [441]
- Not checked yetcites [442]
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Previously, Medlock et al. (269) studied the likelihood of the introduction of Ae. albopictus into England and concluded that this species could adapt to conditions in the south of the island with potential activity in 4 to 5 months per year, thereby increasing the risk of dirofilariasis transmission.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [269]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These predictions seem to have been confirmed by epidemiological studies over the past decade that demonstrate both the emergence and the reemergence of dirofilariasis in humans and in animal reservoirs, as mentioned above.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Relevant Research Approaches to Climatic Change and Other Factors That Influence Transmission and Distribution Dynamics of Dirofilaria spp.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Consequently, antigen detection usually produces false-negative results and underestimates the number of feline infections (40).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The frequently asymptomatic character of D. repens in dogs and, thus, the lack of its clinical diagnosis could contribute to its silent spread through canine reservoirs, increasing the risk of infection in humans residing in the same areas (148).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [148] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This shows that the medical community's knowledge of and vigilance for these parasites can decisively influence the successful detection of human cases, the numbers of which are likely to be underestimated in many areas of endemicity.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These lesions often disappear with time, suggesting that pulmonary dirofilariasis can present with transient lesions (98).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [98]
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, it has been pointed out that cases attributed to D. immitis in European patients may not be well characterized and instead represent D. repens infections (330), thereby rendering D. repens almost exclusively responsible for human infections in Europe.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [330]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These data demonstrate that the full development and fertilization of D. repens worms in human hosts are feasible, contradicting the commonly accepted belief that Dirofilaria worms cannot fully develop in human patients.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
boostedn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“When present, pleural effusion is of a low magnitude (301).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [301]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Species can also be defined by the histochemical staining of anatomical regions with phosphatase activity (84,338) and by the amplification of microfilaria DNA by PCR (130, 131).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [84]
- Not checked yetcites [338]
- Not checked yetcites [130]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pulmonary dirofilariasis is detected at the highest frequencies in male adults with a mean age of 53 years, although infected patients range in age from 10 to 79 years (301).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [301]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“If these specific antibodies can block the activity of parasitic enzymes, these data could account for the limited capacity for survival of infective D. immitis larvae over the infection time in human patients, due to worm metabolism blockage, and, consequently, could account for a lack of worm maturation in this host (158).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [158]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is likely that, as mentioned above, a subcutaneous/ocular localization facilitates a fast detection of the infection, being frequently referred to by the patients themselves, and as a result, many worms may still be intact upon diagnosis.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Microfilariae in the blood are usually detected in concentrated blood specimens by microscopy using the Knott test or other tests to concentrate microfilariae (435).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [435]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, D. immitis pulmonary nodules are internal, and most are asymptomatic; thus, when they are diagnosed, they are more likely to be due to old infections, with the worms which caused the infection being unidentifiable due to the destruction and decomposition of parasite tissues.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Worms in the ocular conjunctiva can also cause inflammation in addition to hyperemic conjunctival tumefaction (364).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [364]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Currently, human dirofilariasis is considered an emerging disease in some areas (214) because of the dramatic increase in the number of reported human cases (mostly subcutaneous/ocular cases) in the last 10 years.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Human Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [214]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Other concomitant risk factors are the severity of pulmonary disease and the restrictions on physical activity that the dog can realistically endure (122,438).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [122]
- Not checked yetcites [438]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is also worth noting that radiographic profiles look normal in some cases despite the infection, and alterations in radiographic profiles may be transient (384), resulting in an erroneous diagnosis.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Clinical diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [384]
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Currently, researchers are debating whether the possible loss of efficacy of macrocyclic lactones is due to the development of resistance (57) or the improper use of the drug during treatment.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [57]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The prophylactic treatment of choice in terms of safety and efficacy consists of the administration of macrocyclic lactones such as ivermectin, milbemycinoxime, moxidectin, or selamectin (205,260,268).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [205]
- Not checked yetcites [260]
- Not checked yetcites [268]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The risk of this condition can be reduced by restricting physical activity for 30 to 40 days following adulticide treatment and by administering heparin and glucocorticoids when necessary (433).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [433]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In ELISAs, this protein exhibits 100% sensitivity and 90% specificity, with positive and negative predictive values of 75% and 100%, respectively (336).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [336]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This technique also allows the confirmation of the presence of pleural effusions (351), although it cannot be used to assess the parasite load (436).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Clinical diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [351]
- Not checked yetcites [436]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The three-dose alternate protocol (a single dose followed by two injections, which are administered at least 30 days after the initial injection and 24 h apart) kills 98% of worms; besides, the first single dose of melarsomine eliminates 90% of male parasites and 10% of females, leading to a safe 50% reduction in the overall parasite load and thereby lessening the chance for embolic complications”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dogs with one or more of the following conditions must be included in the high-risk group for thromboembolic complications: symptoms related to the disease (coughing, exercise intolerance, and ascites), abnormal chest X ray, high levels of circulating antigens, visualization of parasites by echocardiography, concomitant ailments, or the impossibility of limiting physical activity (435).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [435]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Tests for the detection of circulating antigens become positive 1 month earlier than tests for detection in dogs, probably due to their higher concentrations in the small blood volume of this host (198,406).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [198]
- Not checked yetcites [406]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The preliminary results obtained indicate the feasibility of the use of troponin I and myoglobin as markers of cardiac damage and of D-dimer as a confirmatory tool for the diagnosis of pulmonary thromboembolism in dogs (80).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Clinical diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [80]
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Testing for microfilaremia and circulating antigens is necessary in dogs undergoing chemoprophylaxis for the first time, in dogs over 1 year old without prior medical history, and at the beginning and end of each season in animals receiving routinely scheduled chemoprophylaxis (146).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [146]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Ivermectin has a partial adulticide effect if administered at a dose of 6 to 12 mg/kg of body weight monthly for 16 months, and the efficiency can reach 100% if treatment is extended to 30 months (259).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [259]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, in both cases, when nodules are detected, a malignancy is usually suspected, which makes human dirofilariasis an essential component of the differential detection of subcutaneous and pulmonary nodules (391).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [391]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, pulmonary nodules are located deep within the body and are asymptomatic in a high percentage of cases, and only a fraction of lung nodules are accidentally identified during chest X-ray procedures (Fig. 13), which are generally performed for reasons unrelated to dirofilariasis (98).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Laboratory diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [98]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A chest X ray provides evidence of pulmonary artery enlargement (Fig. 10A), lung parenchymal changes, and right heart cardiomegaly in advanced stages of canine dirofilariasis (435,443).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Clinical diagnosis.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [435]
- Not checked yetcites [443]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In BALB/c mice infected with Litomosoides sigmodontis and treated with rifampin alone or with doxycycline for 14 days, the elimination of Wolbachia from worms and the inhibition of development and embryogenesis were shown, and few worms survived after treatment (446).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Wolbachia as a Therapeutic Target
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [446]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Microfilaricide and adulticide activity (163) and the total elimination of microfilariae for at least 4 months were found when tetracycline treatment was followed by the administration of acaciasides (Acacia auriculiformis-derived saponins) (104).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Wolbachia as a Therapeutic Target
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [163]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the most important point in the management of human dirofilariasis is its differentiation from other causes of nodules susceptible to being removed by surgery (391).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [391]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Monthly oral doses of ivermectin or milbemycinoxime, topical selamectin, or moxidectin with the addition of imidacloprid are highly effective and safe for routine use (261).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [261]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The removal of subcutaneous nodules or worms from the ocular conjunctiva is a simple procedure, but surgical intervention is much more complex for pulmonary, ocular, retro-ocular, or other internal locations (138,208,317).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [138]
- Not checked yetcites [208]
- Not checked yetcites [317]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“dramatically depleting the Wolbachia population in filariae when applied for 2 weeks prior to the L4-to-L5 molting of B. pahangi in the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) model, although a regrowth of bacterial populations was observed after 160 days (82).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Wolbachia as a Therapeutic Target
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [82]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“it is generally accepted that the host is often able to control the worm burden and maintain it within limits compatible with its own survival, destroying most of the larvae acquired from reinfections (389).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immune Response: Basic Facts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [389]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In chronic infections, a progressive suppression of cellular immunity is observed, with antibody responses being preserved (167,449).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immune Response: Basic Facts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [167]
- Not checked yetcites [449]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Different antibody isotypes (IgM, IgG, and IgE) against every developmental stage of the parasite are found, with the highest levels of antibodies being found in microfilaremic infections (109, 145, 166-168, 272, 415).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immune Response: Basic Facts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [109]
- Not checked yetcites [145]
- Not checked yetcites [166]
- Not checked yetcites [167]
- Not checked yetcites [168]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Chirgwin et al. (90) did not find any changes in molting in the same model following tetracycline treatment, although the parasite load decreased after treatment.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Wolbachia as a Therapeutic Target
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [90]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When treated, surgery is usually used, in most cases due to the suspicion of a malignant origin of the nodule or the presence of worms in ocular locations.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have not produced demonstrable benefits and can actually exacerbate lung parenchymal disease (15).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Treatment and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The Th2 response was directed mainly against D. immitis antigens, whereas the Th1 response was stimulated by Wolbachia (256).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [256]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“IgG antibodies specific for the dominant Wolbachia surface protein (WSP) have been detected in the blood and urine of dogs with various clinical presentations of dirofilariasis (216, 288), in naturally and experimentally infected cats (38,289), and in humans diagnosed with pulmonary and subcutaneous dirofilariasis (162,396).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immune Response: Basic Facts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [216]
- Not checked yetcites [288]
- Not checked yetcites [38]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Macrophages play a role in the activation and regulation of this innate response and link the innate and adaptive responses (421).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [421]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Most patients diagnosed with pulmonary dirofilariasis demonstrate an exclusively IgG1-based (Th1) proinflammatory response to WSP (390, 396), whereas individuals exposed to D. immitis without pulmonary nodules exhibit a predominantly IgEbased (Th2) response (129, 344) that is specifically stimulated by both a galectin and an aldolase from the parasite but not by Wolbachia (344).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [390] source
- Not checked yetcites [396]
- Not checked yetcites [129]
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Macrophages and neutrophils are present in canine D. immitis infections (216) and in cases of human dirofilariasis, and both cell types have been described to be the most abundant cell types in pulmonary and subcutaneous nodules (328, 388).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [216]
- Not checked yetcites [328]
- Not checked yetcites [388]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the immunization of BALB/c mice with recombinant WSP induced the expression of iNOS and gamma interferon (IFN-␥) mRNA and the production of NO and IgG2a (Th1), which are related to macrophage-mediated proinflammatory responses (55,287).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
- Not checked yetcites [287]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Human patients diagnosed with pulmonary dirofilariasis exhibit IgG or IgM responses against somatic and E/S antigens of adult D. immitis worms (395), whereas IgE antibodies predominate in asymptomatic individuals (129, 374).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Both the Presence of Microfilariae and the Clinical Status of Dirofilaria-Infected Hosts Influence the Intensity of the Antibody Response
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [395]
- Not checked yetcites [129]
- Not checked yetcites [374]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“individuals with D. repens subcutaneous dirofilariasis exhibited a strong anti-WSP IgG response and positive immunohistochemical staining for WSP in granuloma inflammatory cells (162).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immune Response: Basic Facts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [162]
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“high levels of anti-WSP IgG have consistently been detected in patients with pulmonary dirofilariasis but not in asymptomatic seropositive individuals (396) or in patients with D. repens-associated subcutaneous dirofilariasis (162).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Both the Presence of Microfilariae and the Clinical Status of Dirofilaria-Infected Hosts Influence the Intensity of the Antibody Response
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [396]
- Not checked yetcites [162]
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In cats treated with ivermectin at 30 d.p.i., anti-D.immitis IgG levels decreased after the elimination of larvae (from 45 d.p.i.onward), whereas anti-Wolbachia IgG levels continued to increase, consistent with the depletion of larvae and the release of Wolbachia into the host's body (346).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Both the Presence of Microfilariae and the Clinical Status of Dirofilaria-Infected Hosts Influence the Intensity of the Antibody Response
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [346]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In cats experimentally infected with L3 larvae, a moderate and short-term IgG response against L3 antigens develops at 0 to 2 m.p.i.(347), whereas IgG production in response to adult worm antigens is detected from 2 m.p.i. until 6 m.p.i.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Both the Presence of Microfilariae and the Clinical Status of Dirofilaria-Infected Hosts Influence the Intensity of the Antibody Response
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [347]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They present surface-linked proteases that lyse epicuticle-binding IgG antibodies, which suggests that microfilariae can avoid host humoral responses (415).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [415]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Eicosanoids are lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid that intervene in the regulation of inflammatory processes and modulate interactions between blood cells and endothelial cells (241).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [241]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“cats experimentally infected with D. immitis showed the highest serum PGE2 levels at 60 d.p.i., followed by a dramatic decrease, associating high PGE2 levels with parasite survival during the critical migration phase of the parasite (295).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [295]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Responses to vasoconstrictive agents such as methacholine, substance P, and A-23187 were suppressed in the pulmonary arteries of dogs with dirofilariasis compared with healthy controls, indicating that behavioral changes in endothelial cells, but not smooth muscle cells, contribute to vessel relaxation.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Pathogenic Mechanisms Unrelated to the Immune Response
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“some studies indicated that WSP induces the chemotaxis of neutrophils (37) and can inhibit their apoptosis in vitro, which could contribute to the extension of the inflammatory state (36).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37]
- Not checked yetcites [36]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Endothelial cell cultures stimulated with DiE/S showed a significant increase in prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels and a significant decrease in monocyte transmigration compared with unstimulated cultures (290).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [290]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Changes observed for the arterial wall in vivo are short-lived and are completely dependent upon the presence of high concentrations of molecules released by female parasites (425).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Pathogenic Mechanisms Unrelated to the Immune Response
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [425]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a considerable increase in intravascular TxB2 levels during septic shock has been demonstrated (27).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27]
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“suggesting that DiE/S can modify the vascular environment and limit the damage from inflammation in the perivascular spaces.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [290]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“PGE2 stimulates anti-inflammatory activity (43), induces vasodilation, and decreases vascular permeability (50)”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43]
- Not checked yetcites [50]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Such mechanisms are thought to be due to excretions by filariae that alter the physiological functions of endothelial cells but not of arterial smooth muscle cells, thereby altering the capacity of the vascular wall to contract and relax.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Pathogenic Mechanisms Unrelated to the Immune Response
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“both D. immitis and D. repens produce numerous proteins that may be related to survival, such as heat shock proteins and enzymes with antioxidant or detoxification and glycolytic functions, all of which have been linked to stress responses and the ability of parasites to interfere with reactive oxygen species released by macrophages and neutrophils (157).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [157]
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“PGE2 has also been detected during different developmental stages of filariae in humans and in monocytes from hyporeactive individuals with onchocerciasis (62,63,242), with its detection being related in all of those cases to the containment of inflammation.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62]
- Not checked yetcites [63]
- Not checked yetcites [242]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the downregulation of intravascular pulmonary macrophages in cats with live worms, in contrast to the upregulation of macrophages in those with dead worms, link the release of Wolbachia antigens to the presence of proinflammatory macrophages (118).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [118] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“suggest that Wolbachia itself is only partially responsible for the inflammatory responses triggered by filariasis and that parasite molecules may also participate in this process.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immunopathogenic Mechanisms in Dirofilariasis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [394]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“histamine, which causes vasoconstriction in healthy dogs, induced vasodilation in the arteries of dirofilariasis-infected dogs, which switched to vasoconstriction when arterial endothelial cells were eliminated (194).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Pathogenic Mechanisms Unrelated to the Immune Response
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [194]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The external surface of D. immitis adults can capture platelets and adsorb albumin, IgG, and complement fraction 3 (C3) in dogs (48,190), thereby masking the worms and preventing the recognition of cuticular antigens.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Parasite Survival Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48]
- Not checked yetcites [190]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the available data suggest that they play important roles not only in parasite survival but also in pathogenic processes.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They have surface nonimmunogenic glycolipids and many isoforms of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and detoxificant enzymes that eliminate toxic products synthesized by macrophages and neutrophils.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge of the genome, proteome, biochemistry, metabolism, molting, pathogenesis, and survival mechanisms of D. immitis and D. repens is limited to date.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rapid and significant changes in the distribution and prevalence of canine reservoirs are being reported around the world, and these changes in turn change the epidemiological parameters for human and feline dirofilariasis.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Wolbachia also stimulates the production of the Th1-type antibody response and the expression of proinflammatory mediators by vascular endothelial cells.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Human dirofilariasis is likely the branch with the greatest dearth of knowledge.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, E/S antigens bind plasminogen and activate plasmin to eliminate thromboembolisms in the presence of the tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA), whose expression is also stimulated by E/S antigens in vascular endothelial cells.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“New tools that allow the acquisition of objective parameters to evaluate and describe the damage in infected animals are being developed.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Live adult worms release metabolic products (E/S antigens) that stimulate anti-inflammatory prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) eicosanoid and decrease monocyte transmigration.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Microfilariae have surface proteases that digest host antibodies.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Wolbachia surface protein (WSP) stimulates the expression of IFN-␥ interacting with monocytes (probably through Toll-like receptors [TLR]) and inhibits their apoptosis.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Global warming influences the stages of the parasite life cycle that take place in vectors.”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Dirofilariasis transmission and distribution are susceptible to global climate change.
“Additionally, the involvement of vectors in the parasite life cycle makes dirofilariasis transmission and distribution susceptible to global climate change, and rates have undergone rapid and significant changes in defined geographic regions in recent years.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Climate change has increased the range of specific vectors of Dirofilaria spp. in some regions.
“These changes could be partially attributed to the growing interest of the scientific community in dirofilariasis, especially with respect to human infections, and to climate change, which has increased the range of specific vectors of Dirofilaria spp. in some regions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Domesticated and wild dogs function as reservoirs for D. immitis and D. repens.
“Among mammalian hosts, they are best adapted to domesticated and wild dogs, which function as reservoirs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Environmental temperature is the key factor that determines the length of the L3 developmental period in mosquitoes.
“The environmental temperature is the key factor that determines the length of the L3 developmental period in mosquitoes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The life cycle of Dirofilaria species comprises a definitive vertebrate host and a vector.
“The life cycle of Dirofilaria species comprises a definitive vertebrate host and a vector (Fig. 1).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Wherever canine dirofilariasis exists, there is a risk of human infection.
“Wherever canine dirofilariasis exists, there is a risk of human infection.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Transmission of Dirofilaria spp. in a given region depends on the presence of a minimum number of dogs infected with adult worms producing microfilariae and on the presence of one or more mosquito species capable of transmitting the parasite.
“The transmission of Dirofilaria spp. in a given region depends on the presence of a minimum number of dogs infected with adult worms producing microfilariae and on the presence of one or more mosquito species capable of transmitting the parasite.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cats with dirofilariasis can heal spontaneously.
“because cats can heal spontaneously”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most infected cats experience low parasite loads.
“Because most infected cats experience low parasite loads”
The paper relies on this without support.
Anaphylactic reactions follow the death of the worms in cats.
“anaphylactic reactions that follow the death of the worms”
The paper relies on this without support.
The small volume of the right heart chambers and pulmonary arterial circuit favors severe cardiopulmonary decompensation during death of adult worms in cats.
“the small volume of the right heart chambers and pulmonary arterial circuit favors the unexpected appearance of severe cardiopulmonary decompensation during the death of the adult worms”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cats that live exclusively indoors are at risk for D. immitis infection.
“Even cats that live exclusively indoors, according to their owners, are at risk for D. immitis infection.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Administration of preventive drugs to cats does not prevent antibody seropositivity.
“The administration of these drugs to cats does not prevent antibody seropositivity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many antigens have great molecular complexity and a large number of isoforms.
“The great molecular complexity and large number of isoforms of many antigens”
The paper relies on this without support.
Some proteins lack immunogenicity in natural infections.
“the lack of immunogenicity of some proteins in natural infections”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“From 2011, heartworm disease was considered an endemic reality in eastern and central Europe, where it had spread from southern countries in a short period of time [1,9].”
From What has happened to heartworm disease in Europe in the last 10 years? (2022) · cites this paper as [1]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“D. repens and D. immitis have been documented more frequently in recent years, and autochthonous findings in dogs as well as mosquitoes are reported in new areas where both filarioid species were not known as endemic before [3,7,11].”
From Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978–2014)—From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens (2016) · cites this paper as [3]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Canine dirofilariosis is a major veterinary health problem in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world (Simón et al., 2012)”
From Culex pipiens as a potential vector for transmission of Dirofilaria immitis and other unclassified Filarioidea in Southwest Spain (2016) · cites this paper as Simón et al., 2012
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Seroepidemiological studies of residents of areas of endemicity reported higher rates of infection in a similar manner to those of canines of the same areas (1, 5, 13, 16, 17, 34).”
From Seroepidemiological Study of Canine and Human Dirofilariasis in the Endemic Region of Northern Serbia (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Heartworm disease is an endemic disease that is continuously expanding in the European continent from the southern countries, traditionally endemic, to the centre and north of the continent”
From Expansion of canine heartworm in Spain (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“This has led to the creation of more optimal conditions that allow the spread of mosquitoes to other areas where previously the climatic conditions prevented their presence [1,55,78,166,167].”
From What has happened to heartworm disease in Europe in the last 10 years? (2022) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Several epidemiological reviews carried out in this regard [1,2,4,9,168] discussed some of these factors, such as the movement of microfilaremic reservoirs from endemic areas or travel of pets from heartworm-free regions to endemic areas.”
From What has happened to heartworm disease in Europe in the last 10 years? (2022) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Additionally, D. repens infections are often asymptomatic in dogs which might lead to a longer time period where a dog is infective, and a mosquito can ingest and transmit the parasite to further hosts [6, 73].”
From Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review (2025) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Canines are the main definitive hosts and primary reservoir of D. immitis and D. repens [9,14,15].”
From Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: current risk of spreading in Central and Northern Europe. (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“In addition, feline heartworm is frequently asymptomatic, and sometimes sudden death may be the only symptom a cat exhibits.”
From Seroprevalence of Feline Heartworm in Spain: Completing the Epidemiological Puzzle of a Neglected Disease in the Cat (2022) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, these cats are not usually subjected to necropsy, so the cause of death is rarely clarified contributing to the lack of knowledge of the presence and importance of feline heartworm disease (1, 6).”
From Seroprevalence of Feline Heartworm in Spain: Completing the Epidemiological Puzzle of a Neglected Disease in the Cat (2022) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“By now (with the exception of Liechtenstein), both parasites have been reported in all countries neighboring Austria (Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, and Switzerland) [3,7,11–17]”
From Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978–2014)—From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens (2016) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“and it is obvious that D. repens was documented in most central European areas prior to D. immitis.”
From Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978–2014)—From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens (2016) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“Various species of the genera Aedes, Ochlerotatus, Culex, Culiseta, Coquillettidia, and Anopheles are potential vectors of Dirofilaria spp. [3,7] in Europe.”
From Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978–2014)—From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens (2016) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“Of these, Aedes vexans, Ae. albopictus (no stable populations in Austria in 2014), Culiseta annulata, Culex pipiens complex, Anopheles maculipennis complex, An. algeriensis, and Ochlerotatus caspius are potential vectors for D. repens [3,12,17,21–23].”
From Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978–2014)—From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens (2016) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“According to Simon et al. (2012), the transmission of D. repens and D. immitis is limited to two main preconditions: (i) the presence of one mosquito species capable of transmitting the parasites, and (ii) the presence of a minimum number of dogs infected with adult helminths that produce microfilariae.”
From Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978–2014)—From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens (2016) · cites this paper as Simon et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Potential vectors of D. immitis in Austria are Coquillettidia richardii, Ae. albopictus, Oc. caspius, Ae. vexans, An. maculipennis complex, Cx. pipiens complex, and Cx. modestus [3,7,14,17].”
From Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978–2014)—From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens (2016) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“D. immitis infects mainly dogs but also cats, ferrets, wild carnivores and humans, and more than 70 different species of culicid mosquitos can act as vectors [2,3].”
From First Autochthonous Infection of a Cat with Dirofilaria immitis in Austria (2021) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“At a mean temperature of 18°C, for example, these will last about 29 days, at 22°C still 16–20 days.”
From Molecular detection of Dirofilaria immitis, Dirofilaria repens and Setaria tundra in mosquitoes from Germany (2014) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Simón et al.[1] calculated a transmission period of 3–4 months in Central Europe for both D. repens and D. immitis, taking into account the extrinsic incubation periods of the worms.”
From Molecular detection of Dirofilaria immitis, Dirofilaria repens and Setaria tundra in mosquitoes from Germany (2014) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“canine dirofilariosis constitutes a risk for the human population living in endemic areas, since D. immitis is the causative agent of pulmonary dirofilariosis”
From First epidemiological report of feline heartworm infection in the Barcelona metropolitan area (Spain) (2014) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“Dirofilariasis is on the rise in the European population of dogs and humans (1, 3, 11, 12).”
From Seroepidemiological Study of Canine and Human Dirofilariasis in the Endemic Region of Northern Serbia (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“In addition, in the last decade, different epidemiological and seroepidemiological studies, alongside clinical reporting, have shown that dirofilariasis has been introduced into the countries of the Balkans peninsula (1, 3, 4, 11, 19).”
From Seroepidemiological Study of Canine and Human Dirofilariasis in the Endemic Region of Northern Serbia (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“In Serbia, humidity and temperature conditions during a large proportion of the year allow for the transmission of dirofilariasis, with seroepidemiological data revealing noteworthy prevalence rates in the country's dog populations and human clinical cases caused by both D. immitis and D. repens (1, 3, 24).”
From Seroepidemiological Study of Canine and Human Dirofilariasis in the Endemic Region of Northern Serbia (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Seven of all ten species found had been proven or thought to transmit Dirofilaria spp. (Ae. vexans, An. maculipennis complex, An. plumbeus, Cq. richardii, Cx. pipiens/torrentium, Cs. longiareolata, Oc. caspius), and accounted for 202 individuals (98.5%).”
From The Incidence of Dirofilaria immitis in Shelter Dogs and Mosquitoes in Austria (2021) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“The main species of Dirofilaria infecting European carnivores are D. immitis, a widespread nematode that causes severe cardiovascular disease (heartworm disease) [1] and D. repens, which localises sucutaneously and is associated with a variety of dermatological clinical signs [2].”
From Role of golden jackals (Canis aureus) as natural reservoirs of Dirofilaria spp. in Romania (2016) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“we must consider the important zoonotic potential of the diseases studied, as the presence of human infections or risk of infection has already been described (5, 24, 25, 28).”
From Current Distribution of Selected Vector-Borne Diseases in Dogs in Spain (2020) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Nevertheless, these filarioids have moderate host specificity and are able to infect a wide range of vertebrates, also including cats and humans”
From Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: current risk of spreading in Central and Northern Europe. (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Several species of the Aedes, Culex, and Anopheles genera were demonstrated as competent vectors [15,262,264].”
From Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: current risk of spreading in Central and Northern Europe. (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Environmental temperature is also the key factor for microfilariae development in mosquito vectors (e.g., L3 require 16–20 days at 22 °C) [15].”
From Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: current risk of spreading in Central and Northern Europe. (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“In Central Europe, the possible transmission period for D. immitis is estimated to be three to four months, while 20 days to 2 months are estimated for some Northern European regions [15].”
From Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: current risk of spreading in Central and Northern Europe. (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“The distribution of D. immitis and D. repens is further influenced by human behavior (e.g., the housing conditions and travel activity of dogs, and imports), and climatic conditions allowing the presence of competent mosquito vectors and larval development [15].”
From Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: current risk of spreading in Central and Northern Europe. (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“According to Simón et al. [15], the transmission of D. immitis and D. repens is limited by two main preconditions: (i) the presence of a mosquito species capable of transmitting the parasite and (ii) the presence of a minimal number of dogs infected with adult nematodes shedding microfilariae.”
From Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: current risk of spreading in Central and Northern Europe. (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Filarial worms infect mainly dogs, but also cats, ferrets, wild carnivores and humans.”
From Dirofilarioses in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management (2020) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“The lengthy life cycle of these nematodes involves an intermediate mosquito host (in Europe mainly Culex pipiens, Aedes vexans and Aedes albopictus) that becomes infected by taking a blood meal from a reservoir host carrying an adequate number of circulating LI larvae (microfilariae).”
From Dirofilarioses in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management (2020) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens (subgenus Nochtiella) are the most important species causing heart-worm disease (HWD) and subcutaneous dirofilariosis, respectively.”
From Dirofilarioses in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management (2020) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Aberrant migrations (eg, to body cavities, central nervous system, femoral artery) are rare, but more frequently reported in cats than in dogs and are responsible for effusions or neurological manifestations”
From Dirofilarioses in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management (2020) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“In contrast with dogs, both microscopic detection of microfilariae and ELISA or immunochromatographic (IC)-based tests that detect circulating antigens of adult D immitis females have low sensitivity in cats.”
From Dirofilarioses in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management (2020) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“According to the localization of the nematode, symptoms can vary from moderate discomfort sensation in the eye, redness, pain and itching to more serious complications (damaged vision, retinal detachment, glaucoma, opacity of the vitreous humor, etc.) [32].”
From Description of five dirofilariasis cases in South Hungary and review epidemiology of this disease for the country (2015) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“These data suggest development into the adult form and fertilization of this worm in humans [32].”
From Description of five dirofilariasis cases in South Hungary and review epidemiology of this disease for the country (2015) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“The percentage of reported cases of ocular dirofilariasis has been increasing: D. repens occurred in ocular regions in 30-35% of the cases [32].”
From Description of five dirofilariasis cases in South Hungary and review epidemiology of this disease for the country (2015) · cites this paper as [32]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Immune Response: Basic Facts
“Likewise, individuals with D. repens subcutaneous dirofilariasis exhibited a strong anti-WSP IgG response and positive immunohistochemical staining for WSP in granuloma inflammatory cells (162).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Both the Presence of Microfilariae and the Clinical Status of Dirofilaria-Infected Hosts Influence the Intensity of the Antibody Response
“Significantly, high levels of anti-WSP IgG have consistently been detected in patients with pulmonary dirofilariasis but not in asymptomatic seropositive individuals (396) or in patients with D. repens-associated subcutaneous dirofilariasis (162).”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilaria spp. in Vector Species
“1.38% in Anopheles crucians and 0.85% in An. punctipennis in Georgia (235)”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
“| Aedes crucians | United States (235) | | Aedes notoscriptus | Australia (366) | | Aedes ochlerotatus | America (243) | | Aedes punctipennis | United States (235) |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Dirofilariasis in Human Hosts
“Fifty-two additional cases have been reported for various regions throughout Russia after that date (13,35,110,408), along with three more cases of pulmonary filariasis (132,197)”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
“| Russia | | 2 | 2 | 61 | 561 | 622 |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > Energy Generation and Molting in Dirofilaria Species
“In microfilariae, nutrient acquisition is exclusively transcuticular, and only glucose, some amino acids, and RNA precursors are taken up (8,188).”
§ Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic > CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
“There is a selective uptake of nutrients through both the digestive tract and the cuticle in microfilariae and adult worms.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Simón, F., Siles-Lucas, M., Morchón, R., González-Miguel, J., Mellado, I., Carretón, E., & Montoya-Alonso, J. A.
- Affiliations
- Universidad de Salamanca (ES)
- Laboratory of Parasitology, IRNASA (CSIC), Salamanca, Spain
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy and IBSAL, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
- Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ES)
- Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
- Venue
- Clinical Microbiology Reviews
- Publisher
- American Society for Microbiology
- Published
- 2012-07
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 507-544
- ISSN
- 0893-8512 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-6618
- PMC
- PMC3416488
- OpenAlex
- W1980882764
- Cited by
- 834
- References
- 404
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 85 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 48 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 24.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Clinical Microbiology Reviews (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Acceda (Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Junta de Castilla y León (SA090/A09)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Parasitic Diseases Research and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Research on Leishmaniasis Studies
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Helminth infection and control
- Keywords
- dirofilariasis, Dirofilaria immitis, Dirofilaria repens, zoonotic filariasis, Wolbachia, host-parasite interactions, vector-borne transmission, human dirofilariasis, clinical management of infections
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cats, Dirofilaria immitis, Dirofilariasis, Dogs, Energy Metabolism, Geography, Host-Parasite Interactions, Humans, Insect Vectors, Life Cycle Stages, Population Dynamics, Zoonoses, Helminth Proteins, Wolbachia, Communicable Diseases, Emerging, Dirofilaria repens
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