Control of sleep and wakefulness
Open accessAbstract
This review summarizes the brain mechanisms controlling sleep and wakefulness. Wakefulness promoting systems cause low-voltage, fast activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG). Multiple interacting neurotransmitter systems in the brain stem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain converge onto common effector systems in the thalamus and cortex. Sleep results from the inhibition of wake-promoting systems by homeostatic sleep factors such as adenosine and nitric oxide and GABAergic neurons in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus, resulting in large-amplitude, slow EEG oscillations. Local, activity-dependent factors modulate the amplitude and frequency of cortical slow oscillations. Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep results in conservation of brain energy and facilitates memory consolidation through the modulation of synaptic weights. Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep results from the interaction of brain stem cholinergic, aminergic, and GABAergic neurons which control the activity of glutamatergic reticular formation neurons leading to REM sleep phenomena such as muscle atonia, REMs, dreaming, and cortical activation. Strong activation of limbic regions during REM sleep suggests a role in regulation of emotion. Genetic studies suggest that brain mechanisms controlling waking and NREM sleep are strongly conserved throughout evolution, underscoring their enormous importance for brain function. Sleep disruption interferes with the normal restorative functions of NREM and REM sleep, resulting in disruptions of breathing and cardiovascular function, changes in emotional reactivity, and cognitive impairments in attention, memory, and decision making.
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Consciousness is present in all three states: wakefulness, NREM sleep, and REM sleep.
“consciousness is present in all three states5.”
From Consciousness and sleep (2024) · cites this paper as [5]
The REM Sleep section says dreaming occurs most frequently in REM sleep but also sometimes in NREM sleep; its discussion of dreams describes conscious awareness during dreaming. However, the NREM Sleep section describes sleep onset as a loss of conscious awareness, so the paper does not support an unqualified claim that consciousness is present throughout all three states. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn human African trypanosomiasis, circadian sleep-wake disruption is characteristic, with sleep and wake periods distributed throughout the 24-h day.
“In human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), a parasitic disease also known as sleeping sickness, circadian sleep-wake disruption is characteristic, with sleep and wake periods distributed throughout the 24-h day (77, 83).”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [77]
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BackgroundNeural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems
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- Authors
- Brown, R. E., Basheer, R., McKenna, J. T., Strecker, R. E., & McCarley, R. W.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- Physiological Reviews
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2012-07
- Volume
- 92
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 1087-1187
- ISSN
- 0031-9333 (ISSN-L)
- 1522-1210
- PMC
- PMC3621793
- OpenAlex
- W2000693195
- Cited by
- 1,477
- References
- 1,486
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 121 · 2024: 105 · 2023: 127 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 109 · 2018: 114 · 2017: 98 · 2016: 112 · 2015: 101 · 2014: 87 · 2013: 59 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 6.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Physiological Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (IK6 BX005714, I01BX001356, I01BX001404, I01 BX000270)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (P01HL095491)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH094803, R01MH039683)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R21NS079866)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroscience of respiration and sleep
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- sleep regulation, wakefulness, sleep homeostasis, adenosine, nitric oxide, preoptic area, thalamus, NREM sleep, REM sleep, cholinergic neurons, GABAergic neurons, reticular formation, muscle atonia, dreams, limbic system, sleep disruption, memory consolidation, sleep evolution
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Attention, Brain, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Memory, Nerve Tissue Proteins, Neural Pathways, Phenotype, Sleep, Sleep Wake Disorders, Sleep, REM, Wakefulness, Signal Transduction, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Genomics, Proteomics, Brain Waves
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