Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Essential Oils: A Short Review

In the paper

“The indirect method studies the ability of antioxidant to scavenge some free radicals, which is not associated with the real oxidative degradation [29].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. source

In the paper

“Primary antioxidants are able to donate a hydrogen atom rapidly to a lipid radical, forming a new radical, which is more stable.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. source

In the paper

“If essential oils are able to scavenge some free radicals, they can also act as anti-inflammatory agents, because one of the inflammatory responses is the oxidative burst that occurs in diverse cells (monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages).”

In the paper

“Nitric oxide is produced in large quantities by the inducible nitric oxide synthases (iNOS) in activated macrophages and neutrophils during defence and immunological reactions.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [23] Kostka, 1995, Free radicals (nitric oxide), Anal. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [24] Nagano, 1999, Practical methods for detection of nitric oxide, Luminescence source
• Not checked yetcites [25] Miyasaka, 1997, Nitric oxide and inflammatory arthritides (minireview), Life Sci. source

In the paper

“Hydrogen peroxide can then also be reduced by transition metal ions generating the hydroxyl radical (HO°), one of the strongest oxidizing agents that can rapidly react with polyunsaturated fatty acids, resulting the production of peroxyl radicals (ROO•).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [18] Babior, 2004, NADPH oxidase, Curr. Opin. Immunol. source
• Not checked yetcites [19] Quinn, 2004, Structure and regulation of the neutrophil respiratory burst oxidase: comparison with nonphagocyte oxidases, J. Leukocyte Biol. source
• Not checked yetcites [20] Fridovich, 1997, Superoxide anion radical (O2•-), superoxide dismutases, and related matter, J. Biol. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [21] Chen, 1999, Hydroxyl-radical production in physiological reaction. A novel function of peroxidase, Eur. J. Biochem. source
• Not checked yetcites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. source

In the paper

“Moreover, essential oils being also able of scavenging free radicals may play an important role in some disease prevention such as brain dysfunction, cancer, heart disease and immune system decline.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [16] Aruoma, 1998, Free radicals, oxidative stress, and antioxidants in human health and disease, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. source
• Not checked yetcites [17] Kamatou, 2010, A review of the application and pharmacological properties of α-bisabolol and α-bisabolol-rich oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. source

In the paper

“Lipid oxidation is a complex reaction that can be generated via three different pathways: 1. Non-enzymatic free radical-mediated chain reactions; 2. Non-enzymatic, non-radical photo-oxidations; 3. Enzymatic reactions [5].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [5] Miguel, 2010, Antioxidant activity of medicinal and aromatic plants, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“Direct and indirect methods have been applied to determine the chain-breaking antioxidant activity of natural products.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. source

In the paper

“Direct methods are based on studying the effect of a tested product (e.g. food) containing antioxidants on the oxidative degradation of a testing system.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. source

In the paper

“ROS and RNS are generated in phagocytes in order to neutralise the invading organisms, having therefore an important role in the host defence mechanism.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. source

In the paper

“Peroxynitrite is formed by phagocytes for killing invading microorganisms, nevertheless if in high concentrations can oxidise several host biomolecules by nitration with the consequent cellular damages being responsible for diverse diseases [26].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [26] Halliwell, 1997, What nitrates tyrosine? Is nitrotyrosine specific as a biomarker of peroxynitrite formation in vivo?, FEBS Lett. source

In the paper

“Secondary anti-oxidants react with the initiating radicals (or inhibit the initiating enzymes), or reduce the oxygen level (without generating reactive radical species).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. source

In the paper

“However, TBARS is representative of a rather late stage of lipid oxidation, when the oxidation substrate has undergone substantial transformation [29].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. source

In the paper

“This can be performed by deactivating high energy species (singlet oxygen); absorbing UV light; scavenging of oxygen; chelating metal that catalyses free radical reaction, or inhibiting enzymes, such as peroxidases, NADPH oxidase, xanthine oxidase, among other oxidative enzymes [28].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. source

In the paper

“The antioxidant ability of the essential oils has also been evaluated using several methods.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [5] Miguel, 2010, Antioxidant activity of medicinal and aromatic plants, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“Peroxide hydrogen can also oxidise halide ions (Cl-) to hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is a strong oxidant that can react with amines producing chloramines, some of them being very toxic [18,19,20,21,22].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [18] Babior, 2004, NADPH oxidase, Curr. Opin. Immunol. source
• Not checked yetcites [19] Quinn, 2004, Structure and regulation of the neutrophil respiratory burst oxidase: comparison with nonphagocyte oxidases, J. Leukocyte Biol. source
• Not checked yetcites [20] Fridovich, 1997, Superoxide anion radical (O2•-), superoxide dismutases, and related matter, J. Biol. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [21] Chen, 1999, Hydroxyl-radical production in physiological reaction. A novel function of peroxidase, Eur. J. Biochem. source
• Not checked yetcites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. source

In the paper

“Antioxidants may act as physical barriers to prevent ROS generation or ROS access to important biological sites (UV filters, cell membranes); chemical traps/sinks that “absorb” energy and electrons, quenching ROS (carotenoids, anthocyanidins); catalytic systems that neutralize or divert ROS [antioxidant enzymes SOD (superoxide dismutase), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase]; binding/inactivation”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [27] Karadag, 2009, Review of methods to determine antioxidant capacities, Food Anal. Methods source

In the paper

“However this reactive species can also exerts its toxicity by generating the peroxynitrite anion after reacting with the superoxide anion radical [22,23,24,25].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [23] Kostka, 1995, Free radicals (nitric oxide), Anal. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [24] Nagano, 1999, Practical methods for detection of nitric oxide, Luminescence source
• Not checked yetcites [25] Miyasaka, 1997, Nitric oxide and inflammatory arthritides (minireview), Life Sci. source

In the paper

“Therefore, and based on their mode of action, the antioxidants can be classified as primary, secondary or co-antioxidants.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. source

In the paper

“The main components in both cases were p-cymene, γ-terpinene, linalool, thymol and carvacrol. The percentages changed according to the method of extraction used, nevertheless p-cymene and thymol dominated in both cases.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [60] Grosso, 2010, Composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris volatiles: comparison between supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation, J. Sep. Sci. source

In the paper

“In spite of the high percentage of carvacrol present in the oil, the inhibition percentage only reached 65%, in contrast to the 100% of BHT.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [50] Goze, 2010, In vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antispasmodic activities and the composition of the essential oil of Origanum acutidens (Hand.-Mazz.) letswaart, J. Med. Food source

In the paper

“This method was followed by [43] that demonstrated the oils of Thymus vulgaris and Eugenia caryophyllus possessed the strongest activity, even comparable to that of α-tocopherol.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [43] Wei, 2010, Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected essential oils, J. Agr. Food Chem. source

In the paper

“All essential oils tested (Thymus vulgaris L., [Eugenia caryophyllus (C. Spreng) Bull et Hare], Origanum vulgare L., Salvia officinalis L. and Rosmarinus officinalis L.) had antioxidant activity, but Thymus vulgaris oil presented the best activity, close to that verified for BHT.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“However, more recent studies have shown that what occurs is mainly a fast electron transfer from the sample to DPPH radical. The abstraction of hydrogen from the sample by DPPH radical is marginal, because it occurs very slowly and depends on the hydrogen-bond accepting solvent.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [5] Miguel, 2010, Antioxidant activity of medicinal and aromatic plants, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“The precentage of inhibition was even close (66.4%) to those found for the non-polar-sub-fraction (chloroformic) (69.1%), which presented the best activity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [47] Ahmadi, 2010, Chemical composition, in vitro antimicrobial, antifungal and antioxidant activities of the essential oil and methanolic extract of Hymenocrater longiflorus Benth., of Iran, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“The percentage inhibition of Salvia eremophila Boiss. oil was of about one third of that of BHT, in contrast to the methanolic extracts of the same plant, which presented activities comparable to that of BHT.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [48] Ebrahimabadi, 2010, Essential oil composition and antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of the aerial parts of Salvia eremophila Boiss. from Iran, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“They found weak antioxidant activity, as expected by the authors, due to the low phenolic content of the oils.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [56] Yang, 2010, Cytotoxic, apoptotic and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Amomum tsao-ko, Bioresour. Technol. source

In the paper

“The oils were able to decrease the high levels of TBARS either in cardiac or liver tissues, protecting them against stress induced oxidation.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [58] Suanarunsawat, 2010, Antioxidant activity and lipid-lowering effect of essential oils extracted from Ocimum sanctum L. leaves in rats fed with a high cholesterol diet, J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. source

In the paper

“The β-thujone-rich oil showed the best inhibition percentage (12.5%), nevertheless much lower than BHA (89.2%).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [45] Mighri, 2010, Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Artemisia herba-alba essential oil cultivated in Tunisian arid zone, C.R. Chim. source

In the paper

“The essential oil of Majorana hortensis L. had appreciable antioxidant activity probably ascrible to carvacrol with positive synergism with other components [66].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [66] Martino, 2010, Chemistry, antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal activities of volatile oils and their components, Nat. Prod. Commun.

In the paper

“Their results showed that the oils of Thymus vulgaris and Origanum vulgare L. showed the best antioxidant activity index, as determined by the Rancimat method, but less than the activity of BHT (synthetic standard).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“Basil oil, that was considered a good antioxidant when the activity was measured through the conjugated diene assay, did not stand out in this test, in which was only considered as possessing moderate activity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [43] Wei, 2010, Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected essential oils, J. Agr. Food Chem. source

In the paper

“Aerial parts and seeds of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. oils possess different chemical compositions, nevertheless in what concerns the antioxidant activity, the authors in [57] found that for higher concentrations of essential oils (>750 mg/L for the aerial parts and > 1,000 mg/L for seeds) a decrease of the activity was observed, suggesting that high concentrations of essential oils possess a pro-oxi”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [57] Miguel, 2010, Foeniculum vulgare essential oils: chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, Nat. Prod. Commun.

In the paper

“Another example is the oil of leaves of Olea europaea L. cv. Chemlali from Tunisia that also possesses low activity when compared to BHT [70], because the main components were α-pinene and 2,6-dimethyloctane, that is, non-phenolic compounds.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [70] Haloui, 2010, Pharmacological activities and chemical composition of the Olea europaea L. leaf essential oils from Tunisia, J. Food Agr. Environ.

In the paper

“Leaf and flower oils had the best antixidant activities, nevertheless inferior to those of BHT and BHA.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [46] Wannes, 2010, Antioxidant activities of the essential oils and methanol extracts from myrtle (Myrtus communis var. italica) leaf, stem and flower, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“In this case, an oil rich in phenolic components (oregano) and the other one (thyme) without great levels of these components presented similar activities, in contrast to that reported for the TBARS, in which thyme possessed the best activity [52].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“Diverse oils obtained from Origanum vulgare L. subsp. glandulosum (Desf.) collected at different locations of Tunisia showed different but always good abilities for scavenging DPPH radicals. Such results depended on the percentage of phenolic compounds (thymol) present in the oils [71].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [71] Mechergui, 2010, Essential oils of Origanum vulgare L. subsp. glandulosum (Desf.) letswaart from Tunisia: chemical composition and antioxidant activity, J. Sci. Food Agr. source

In the paper

“It is also noteworthy to stress the difference in the chemical composition of Thymus vulgaris oils reported by [52,60], showing therefore the importance of the evaluation of the chemical composition of samples.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. source
• Not checked yetcites [60] Grosso, 2010, Composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris volatiles: comparison between supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation, J. Sep. Sci. source

In the paper

“This is a good example in which diverse methods of antioxidant evaluation may give rise different results, showing therefore the importance of using several methods to evaluate the enatioxidant activity of samples.”

In the paper

“The evaluation of the antioxidant activities of essential oils from Capparis spinosa L. and Crithmum maritimum L. from Dalmatia (Croatia) by different methods, showed that using TBARS method, the oils presented at 1 g/L (the highest concentration tested) lower ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation than BHA, but close to that of BHT.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [55] Blazevic, 2010, Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of essential oils from caper (Capparis spinosa) and sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum) by different methods, J. Food Biochem. source

In the paper

“For example, Satureja intricata Lange had ability for scavenging both DPPH and ABTS, whereas Satureja obovata Lag. did not possess such ability [77]. This behaviour could be attributed to the presence of thymol and its precursors p-cymene and γ-terpinene, along with borneol in Satureja intricata.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [77] Jordan, 2010, Chemical composition and antiradical activity of the essential oil from Satureja intricata, S. obovata; and their hybrid Datureja x delpozoi, Nat. Prod. Commun.

In the paper

“The authors [46] explained this activity to the presence of eugenol and methyl eugenol in its essential oil, whereas these two components only belong to a minor fraction of leaf and stem essential oils. These dihydroxylated compounds would be necessary to form chelated Fe2+. Leaf and stem oils had as main components 1,8-cineole and terpinen-4-ol, monohydroxylated compounds that would be unable to”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [46] Wannes, 2010, Antioxidant activities of the essential oils and methanol extracts from myrtle (Myrtus communis var. italica) leaf, stem and flower, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“The antioxidant measurement by DPPH and FRAP methods showed that the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllus exhibited higher activity than the volatile aglycone fraction obtained after enzymatic hydrolysis with β-glucosidase from bitter almonds of the extract and further extraction from the aqueous layer with n-pentane [80].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [80] Politeo, 2010, Comparison of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of glycosidically bound and free volatiles from clove (Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb.), J. Food Biochem. source

In the paper

“The ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals of the essential oils of Thymus marschallianus and Thymus proximus were evaluated using the safranine method and the authors reported that the latter oil was more effective than the former. The activity of both oils were dose-dependent and they were mainly constituted by thymol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene [54].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [54] Jia, 2010, Chemical composition and antioxidant, antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of Thymus marschallianus Will. and Thymus proximus Serg, J. Food Sci source

In the paper

“At all concentrations assayed Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia officinalis essential oils showed the highest values for chelating Fe2+. All the oils studied were better chelators of Fe2+ than ascorbic acid and BHT, used as references [52].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“The anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils may be attributed not only to their antioxidant activities but also to their interactions with signalling cascades involving cytokines and regulatory transcription factors, and on the expression of pro-inflammatory genes.”

In the paper

“The capacity of the essential oils obtained from the aerial parts or from the fruits of Foeniculum vulgare for scavenging hydroxyl radicals was always less than 50%, at the concentrations assayed (100-2,000 mg/mL) [57]. Mannitol, the reference used in this assay, showed a similar scavenging percentage at ≈2,000 mg/mL. Only higher concentrations presented percentages >50%.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [57] Miguel, 2010, Foeniculum vulgare essential oils: chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, Nat. Prod. Commun.

In the paper

“They found the highest and the lowest activities in the same part of the plant (berries). Considering the drying method used, oven-drying was the best method to obtain an important activity for leaf and berry oils, followed by sun-dried essential oils and shade-dried samples. Such variability seemed to be related to the chemical composition of the oils, wich having a similar profile, the main”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [75] Ennajar, 2010, The influence of organ, season and drying method on chemical composition and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Juniperus phoenica L. essential oils, essential oils. J. Sci. Food Agr. source

In the paper

“Two isoforms of COX, COX-1 and COX-2, have been reported. COX-1 is a constitutive enzyme whilst COX-2 protein is only slightly expressed in most normal mammalian tissues in response to physical, chemical and biological stimuli, including UV light exposure, dioxin and LPS (lipopolyssacharide) insult [96].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [96] Murakami, 2007, Targeting NOX, iNOS and COX-2 in inflammatory cells: chemoprevention using food phytochemicals, Int. J. Cancer source

In the paper

“In this assay, the authors found that the Thymus vulgaris oil had the best activity against lipid oxidation, whereas in the DPPH method, the authors found that Eugenia caryophyllus oil was the most potent scavenger of DPPH free radicals, even better than the standards ascorbic acid and BHT. The same authors also used the Rancimat test, and in that ase, the best oil was that of Origanum vulgare,”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is released from cell membranes by phospholipase A2 under the stimulus of several factors associated with inflammation. The same fatty acid is metabolised by cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways in different eicosanoids such as prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotrienes (LTs) in diverse cells and thromboxane A2 in platlets [22].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. source

In the paper

“The highest antioxidant capacity to scavenge free DPPH radicals was reached in the month of June for male oils and during the months of September - October for the female oils. The high reducing power for male oil was detected during the month of June and for the female oil was in August. The antioxidant activity of the female oil was almost ten times higher than ascorbic acid in the FRAP assay [”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [81] Gourine, 2010, Seasonal variation of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of essential oil from Pistacia atlantica Desf. leaves, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. source

In the paper

“Carrageenan-induced mouse paw oedema is frequently used to determine the anti-inflammatory activity of diverse bioactive compounds such as plant extracts and essential oils [87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [87] Santos, 2000, Antiinflammatory and antinociceptive effects of 1,8-cineole a terpenoid oxide present in many plant essential oils, Phytother. Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [88] Hajhashemi, 2004, Black cumin seed essential oil, as a potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug, Phytother. Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [89] Oyemitamn, 2008, Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil of Dennettia tripetala G. Baker (Annonaceae) in rodents, Afr. J. Trad. CAM
• Not checked yetcites [90] Lino, 2005, Evaluation of antinociceptive and antiinflammatory activities of the essential oil (EO) of Ocimum micranthum Willd. from Northeastern Brazil, Phytother. Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [91] Koppel, 2008, Anti-inflammatory effects of thyme essential oil in mice, Acta Vet. Brno. source
• Not checked yetcites [92] Apel, 2010, Anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils from leaves of Myrciaria tenella and Calycorectes sellowianus, Pharm. Biol. source
• Not checked yetcites [93] Mendes, 2010, Evaluation of the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of the essential oil of Lippia gracilis leaves, J. Ethnopharmacol. source
• Not checked yetcites [94] Kirimer, 2006, Biological activity and composition of the essential oils of Achillea schischkinii Sosn. and Achillea aleppica D.C. subsp. aleppica, J. Agr. Food Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [95] Hajhashemi, 2003, Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

In the paper

“Amomum tsao-ko oil with low antioxidant activity measured through the TBARS method [70], as reported above, also had weak ability for scavenging DPPH free radicals and low ferric reducing power, mainly due to the low phenolic content of the oils [56].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [70] Haloui, 2010, Pharmacological activities and chemical composition of the Olea europaea L. leaf essential oils from Tunisia, J. Food Agr. Environ.
• Not checked yetcites [56] Yang, 2010, Cytotoxic, apoptotic and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Amomum tsao-ko, Bioresour. Technol. source

In the paper

“In spite of the fact some authors consider that the flower oils of Retama raetam (Forssk.) Webb cultivated in Tunisia presented good antioxidant activity, as measured through the DPPH method, the sole method used by the authors, whereby the IC50 value was fortyfold superior to that of the reference BHT, nevertheless the apparent relative good activity reported by the authors could be attributed to”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [72] Edziri, 2010, Chemical composition and antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activities of the flower oil of Retama raetam (Forssk.) Webb from Tunisia, Nat. Prod. Res. source

In the paper

“The essential oils of Artemisia herba-alba already reported above as possessing little ability for inhibiting lipid peroxidation [45], when evaluated in terms of free radical scavenging, the oils continued to have weak activity. In this case and in contrast to other works [44,51], the essential oil of Artemisia herba-alba was not effective either against lipid oxidation nor as a free radical scav”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [45] Mighri, 2010, Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Artemisia herba-alba essential oil cultivated in Tunisian arid zone, C.R. Chim. source

In the paper

“By comparing the antioxidant activity measured by DPPH radical scavenging and ferric reducing power (FRAP) of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Cuminum cyminum L. oils, El-Ghorab et al. (2010) [79] reported almost similar trends in both methods. Cuminum cyminum, mainly constituted by cuminal, γ-terpinene, pinocarveol,, carotol, α-pinene, sabinene, β-terpineol and linalool, presented the best activity”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [79] Nauman, 2010, A comparative study on chemical composition and antioxidant activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum), J. Agr. Food Chem. source

In the paper

“From the 28 essential oils evaluated, only Thymus zygis ssp. sylvestris and Thymus capitellatus collected in diferent places of Portugal had superoxide anion scavenging activity >50%.”

• Also stated in: § 3.2. Free radical scavenging ability · hedged

  “Such results seem to indicate that the phenolic compounds are not the only ones able to scavenge superoxide anion, as already reported for hydroxyl radical scavenging [53].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Dandlen, 2010, Antioxidant activity of six Portuguese thyme species essential oils, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“Eugenia caryophyllus (clove) showed the highest ferric reducing capacity in terms of Trolox® concentrations, such as in the DPPH method, in contrast to the TBARS method, in which Thymus vulgaris showed to be more effective [52].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“The antioxidant activity of Pistacia atlantica Desf. leaf oils from diverse origins of Algeria showed weak ability for scavenging DPPH free radicals, at least when compared to those of references (BHT and BHA). In contrast, the same oils had a higher antioxidant capacity relative to the antioxidant of reference ascobic acid when measured through the FRAP assay [78].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [78] Gourine, 2010, Antioxidant activities and chemical composition of essential oil of Pistacia atlantica from Algeria, Ind. Crop Prod. source

In the paper

“The IC50 values were generally >1,000 μg/mL, substantially superior to that of quercetin, the reference used by the authors. Such low activity was attributed to the absence or to the very low concentrations of some compounds responsible for antioxidant activity – β-caryophyllene along with phenolic compounds.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [64] Yamaguchi, 2010, Composição química de óleos essenciais de espécies de Aniba e Licaria e suas actividades antioxidante e antiagregante plaquetária, Quim. Nova source

In the paper

“Among Portuguese Thymus species collected in different places of this country, Thymus camphoratus Hoffmanns. & Link, Thymus caespititius Brot., and Thymus capitellatus Hoffmanns. & Link oils from different origins were significantly more effective in scavenging hydroxyl radicals than the remaining samples.”

• Also stated in: § 3.2. Free radical scavenging ability · hedged

  “The oils in which thymol or carvacrol predominated did not present significant activities, which according to the authors [53] indicated that these phenolic compounds are not determinant in the ability for scavenging hydroxyl radicals.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Dandlen, 2010, Antioxidant activity of six Portuguese thyme species essential oils, Flavour Fragr. J. source

In the paper

“On the other hand Lindera pulcherrima, Dodecadenia grandiflora and Dodecadenia gamblei presented the best inhibition of lipid peroxidation determined through the TBARS method as well as in the β-carotene bleaching test, but in the DPPH method, only Dodecadenia grandiflora was a powerful DPPH radical scavenger [44].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [44] Joshi, 2010, Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the leaf essential oils of Himalayan Lauraceae species, J. Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“Nevertheless in this assay the reference eugenol had weak ability, whereas in the DPPH method it possessed considerable activity. Such a difference could be explained by the different polarity for FRAP method compared with DPPH method. “Water-like” solvents induce a dramatic decrease in the hydrogen atom-donating capability in comparison with ethyl alcohol used in DPPH method [80].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [80] Politeo, 2010, Comparison of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of glycosidically bound and free volatiles from clove (Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb.), J. Food Biochem. source

In the paper

“A good activity was found by Saei-Dehkordi et al. (2010) [74] for the root oil of Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris from Tunisia, because the IC50 values were close to that of BHT. Such antiradical activity could be attributed to the high amounts of two phenyl-propanoids, dillapiole and myristicin [60].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [74] Tajik, 2010, Chemical composition of essential oils in Zataria multiflora Boiss. from different parts of Iran and their radical scavenging and antimicrobial activity, Food Chem. Toxicol. source
• Not checked yetcites [60] Grosso, 2010, Composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris volatiles: comparison between supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation, J. Sep. Sci. source

In the paper

“Rosa canina L. also possessed capacity for scavenging ABTS, nevertheless the harvesting place was determinant in such activity, which seemed to be related to the presence of high percentages of vitispirane [76].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [76] Ghazghazi, 2010, Phenols, essential oils, and carotenoids of Rosa canina from Tunisia and their antioxidant activities, Afr. J. Biotechnol.

In the paper

“If this method allows screening the anti-inflammatory of samples, very little information is given about its mechanism.”

In the paper

“In the benzoic acid hydroxylation method, the essential oil presented better activity than in the deoxyribose method. The authors explained such results to the relative reactivity of hydroxyl radical towards the substrates deoxyribose and benzoic acid.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [51] Patil, 2010, Antiaflatoxigenic and antioxidant activity of an essential oil from Ageratum conyzoides L, J. Sci. Food Agr. source

In the paper

“The oils from young and mature leaves of Ageratum scoparia Waldst. & Kit. displayed a high degree of hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. However, the scavenging activity of principle constituents, β-myrcene and p-cymene, was very less compared to that of oils. The same authors [83] also evaluated the antioxidant activity of the samples by the DPPH method and also reported less activity of the”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [83] Singh, 2010, In vitro screening of essential oil from young and mature leaves of Artemisia scoparia compared to its major constituents for free radical scavenging activity, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“Saleh et al. (2010) [65] have conducted a comparative evaluation of the antioxidant properties of 248 essential oils by the spectrophotometer method of DPPH along with DPPH/TLC. Only 17 species possessed effective antioxidant activity, mainly belonging to the Lamiaceae family. The active compounds detected by DPPH/TLC method included phenols, non-phenols, oxygenated or non-oxygenated compounds.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [65] Saleh, 2010, Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of essential oils, Ethn. Dis.

In the paper

“The capacity for scavenging hydroxyl radicals was evaluated and the authors found that both oils had similar ability. When the activity was evaluated by the DPPH method, the authors reported that Athamanta turbith ssp. hungarica was the most effective, albeit with less ability than the references used (quercetin and ascorbic acid) [84].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [84] Samojlik, 2010, Effects of Athamanta turbith fruit essential oils on CCl4-induced hepatic failure in mice and their antioxidant properties, Phytother. Res. source

In the paper

“Ageratum conyzoides methanolic extracts that had low capacity for preventing lipid oxidation, in the DPPH assay were revealed to be more effective than the essential oil [51].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [51] Patil, 2010, Antiaflatoxigenic and antioxidant activity of an essential oil from Ageratum conyzoides L, J. Sci. Food Agr. source

In the paper

“On the other hand, Inoue et al. (2000) [136] consider that COX-2 expression is regulated by a negative feedback loop, mediated through PPARγ, especially in macrophages, indicating that PPARγ participates in cell type-specific control of COX-2 expression.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [136] Inoue, 2000, Feedback control of cyclooxygenase-2 expression through PPARγ, J. Biol. Chem. source

In the paper

“The major source of TNF-α is the cells of monocyte/macrophage lineage although T lymphocytes, neutrophils and mast cells also produce this pro-inflammatory cytokine.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“The production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines may be induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that is an endotoxin localised on Gram negative bacteria cell walls capable to activate macrophages, stimulating the production of inflammatory cytokines [104].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [104] Raetz, 2002, Lipopolysaccharide endotoxins, Annu. Rev. Biochem. source

In the paper

“Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPARs) are ligand-activated transcription factors that belong to the superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors, which also includes receptors for vitamin D, vitamin A, thyroid hormone, bile acids, and steroid hormones. The PPAR subfamily comprises three isotypes, PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ, which play various roles in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism,”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [132] Hotta, 2010, Carvacrol, a component of thyme oil, activates PPARα and γ and suppresses COX-2 expressio, J. Lipid Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [133] Mangelsdorf, 1995, The nuclear receptor superfamily: the second decade, Cell source

In the paper

“IL-1β is produced by a variety of cells types, including monocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts and endothelial cells [103].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“1,8-Cineole, a terpene oxide, present in many essential oils was shown to inhibit leukotrienes (LTB4) and prostaglandins (PGE2), both pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism [102].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [102] Juergens, 1998, Antiinflammatory effects of eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) in bronchial asthma: inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism in human blood monocytes ex vivo, Eur. J. Med. Res.

In the paper

“Thyme essential oil, mainly constituted by p-cymene and thymol, only at high concentrations (5,000 mg/L) significantly inhibited total mRNA IL-1β expression in the mouse colon in which colitis was induced by TNBS, not inhibiting significantly IL-6 expression [125].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [125] Koppel, 2008, Anti-inflammatory effects of thyme essential oil in mice, Acta Vet. Brno source

In the paper

“There are three isoforms of NOS: constitutive (cNOS), endothelial (eNOS) and the other is cytokine-inducible NOS (iNOS). Inflammatory mediators such as IL-1, TNF-α or LPS stimulate iNOS expression in rodent macrophages in vitro. NO production and/or iNOS expression are also induced by inflammatory mediators in a wide variety of mammalian cells, producing large amounts of NO for prolonged time”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [25] Miyasaka, 1997, Nitric oxide and inflammatory arthritides (minireview), Life Sci. source

In the paper

“Cordia verbenacea D. C. essential oil significantly reduced TNF-α levels but not IL-1β production in the subcutaneous tissue of the rat paw injected with carrageenan [112].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [112] Passos, 2007, Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties of the essential oil and active compounds from Cordia verbenacea, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

In the paper

“More examples of 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors included some Salvia essential oils from South Africa. The authors attributed such activities to the presence of 1,8-cineole, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene in the essential oils [98].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [98] Kamatou, 2006, Chemical composition, leaf trichome types and biological activities of the essential oils of four related Salvia species indigenous to Southern Africa, J. Essent. Oil Res. source

In the paper

“Cinnamaldehyde, isolated from an essential oil produced from the leaves of Cinnamomum osmophloeum, was reported to inhibit the secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α within LPS or lipoteichoic acid (LTA) stimulated murine J774A.1 macrophages. Cinnamaldehyde also suppressed the production of these cytokines from LPS stimulated human blood monocytes derived primary macrophages and human THP-1 monocytes [111].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [111] Chao, 2008, Cinnamaldehyde inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion from monocytes/macrophages through suppression of intracellular signalling, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“Rosmarinus officinalis L. oil, mainly constituted by 1,8-cineole along with α-pinene, camphor and p-cymene was only able to reduce the pro-inflammatory IL-6 production in the mouse colon in which colitis was induced by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS), not suppressing IL-1β [110].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [110] Fabian, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil in mice, Acta Vet. Brno. source

In the paper

“Among the 21 spices [allspice (Pimenta officinalis Lindl.), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.), caraway (Carum carvi L.), gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis), cumin (Cuminum cyninum L.), clove [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry], laurel (Laurus nobilis L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.), cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylonicum Blume), sage (”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [122] Morita, 2003, Hepatoprotective effect of myristicin from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) on lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine-induced liver injury, J. Agr. Food Chem. source

In the paper

“The prostaglandins, especially prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) amplify the pain mechanism and enhance vascular permeability whereas the leukotrienes contract the smooth muscles of blood vessels, enhance vascular permeability and mediate proinflammatory and allergic responses [97].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [97] Houghton, 2003, The activity against leukocyte eicosanoid generation of essential oil and polar fractions of Adesmia boronioides Hook.f, Phytother. Res. source

In the paper

“Six years later, Caldefie et al. (2006) [107] also reported the capacity of the essential oil of that species for suppressing IL-2 pro-inflammatory cytokine and stimulating the secretion of the anti-inflammatory IL-4 and IL-10 cytokines in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell (monocytes and lymphocytes) stimulated by the lectin phytohemagglutinin (PHA) from Phaseolus vulgaris L..”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [107] Fusillier, 2006, Potential anti-inflammatory effects of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil on human peripheral blood leukocytes, Phytother. Res. source

In the paper

“Whether some essential oils are able to inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, some of them, particularly lemongrass, geranium and spearmint and their main components (citral, geraniol, citronellol, and carvone), can also suppress TNF-α-induced neutrophil adherence responses [120]. According to these authors, those essential oils or their major components do not affect”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [120] Abe, 2003, Suppression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced neutrophil adherence response by essential oils, Mediat. Inflamm. source

In the paper

“iNOS catalises the production of large amount of NO from L-arginine and molecular oxygen, is mainly triggered and regulated by a series of signalling pathways including nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transcription factor and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) [116].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [116] Yoon, 2010, Artemisia fukudo essential oil attenuates LPS-induced inflammation by suppressing NF-kB and MAPK activation in RAW264.7 macrophages, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“In macrophages and other types of cells, LPS activates three subclasses of MAPKs: extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38. Studies have revealed that some compounds are able to suppress proinflammatory cytokines and NF-κB, to inhibit the COX-2 and iNOS expression inhibiting some of these MAPKS [129,130,131].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [129] Wadsworth, 2001, Effects of Ginkgo biloba extracts and quercetin on lipopolysaccharide-induced release of nitric oxide, Chem. Biol. Interact. source
• Not checked yetcites [130] Winstein, 1992, Bacterial lipopolysaccacharide induces tyrosine phosphorilation and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases in macrophages, J. Biol. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [131] Yanagita, 2005, Anthocyanidins inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 expression in LPS-evoked macrophages: structure-activity relationship and molecular mechanisms involved, Biochem. Pharmacol. source

In the paper

“Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) are two important pro-inflammatory cytokines with a relevant role in the inflammatory disorders.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“NF-κB is maintained as a latent form in the cytoplasm of cells where it is complexed to IκB inhibitor protein. Seven members of the IκB family of proteins have been identified and includes IκB-α. Upon activation of NF-κB, IκB-α is phosphorylated by IκB kinases (IKK) leading to proteasome-dependent degradation of IκB, which allows a rapid translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus where it binds to”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [127] Yoshimura, 2006, Signal transduction of inflammatory cytokines and tumor development, Cancer Sci. source
• Not checked yetcites [128] Poynter, 2000, Recent advances towards understanding redox mechanisms in the activation of nuclear factor κB, Free Radic. Biol. Med. source

In the paper

“Only the essential oils of Teucrium brevifolia Schreber and Teucrium montbretii Benth. ssp. heliotropiifolium (Barbey) Davis from a group of four studied effectively inhibited LPS-induced NO production in macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. Spathulenol and δ-cadinene predominated in Teucrium brevifolia whereas carvacrol and caryophyllene oxide dominated in Teucrium montbretii.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [137] Menichini, 2009, Phytochemical composition, anti-inflammatory and antitumour activities of four Teucrium essential oils from Greece, Food Chem.

In the paper

“The anti-inflammatory activities of PPARs are partially effectuated by inhibition of NF-κB. PPARs are able to attenuate NF-κB function either by interfering with the transcription activating capacity of the NF-κB complex or by regulating genes that suppress the activation of NF-κB. By physical interaction with components of the NF-κB complex, PPARα impairs binding of NF-κB to the DNA and”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [134] Stienstra, R. (2007). The role of PPARs in inflammation and obesity. [PhD thesis, Wageningen University]. source
• Not checked yetcites [135] Nystrom, 2005, Endothelial inflammation in insulin resistance, Lancet. source

In the paper

“The inhibition of activity or expression of COX-2 by some anti-inflammatory is due to the interference with the signalling mechanisms that regulate the COX-2 gene. In this gene, four transcription factors including NF-κB, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP), activator protein 1 (AP-1) and CRE-binding protein (CREB) have been identified as regulators of COX-2 transcription [22,126].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [126] Inoue, 1995, Transcriptional regulation of human prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase-2 gene by lipopolysaccharide and phorbol ester in vascular endotelial cells, J. Biol. Chem. source

In the paper

“The oils Torreya nucifera Siebold et Zucc. oil, mainly constituted by limonene, δ-3-carene and α-pinene, was a COX-2 selective inhibitor having significant inhibitory effects on PGE2 production [101].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [101] Kim, 2009, Torreya nucifera essential oil inhibits skin pathogen growth and lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory effects, Int. J. Pharmacol. source

In the paper

“However, Gram positive bacteria may also contribute to the stimulation in the production of cytokines. Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) represents a class of amphiphilic molecules anchored to the outer face of the cytoplasmic membrane in Gram positive bacteria that causes cytokine induction in mononuclear phagocytes and a synergism with peptidoglycan (PG) has been described resulting in higher cytokine lev”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Morath, 2003, Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus activated immune cells via Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), and CD14, whereas TLR-4 and MD-2 are not involved, J. Biol. Chem. source

In the paper

“The fruit essential oils of Cinnamomum insularimontanum Hayata and citral were revealed to possess significant inhibitory effects on NO production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Citral exhibited an inhibitory activity in LPS-induced iNOS protein expression, not found for COX-2.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [121] Lin, 2008, Anti-inflammation activity of fruit essential oil from Cinnamomum insularimontanum Hayata, Bioresource Technol. source

In the paper

“This work reports the antioxidant activities of essential oils which may act by preventing lipid peroxidation, scavenging free radicals or, and in very few cases, chelating metal ions.”

In the paper

“The same authors also reported that anethole inhibited the degradation of IκBα, blocking its phosphorylation in TNF-stimulated ML1-a cells. In the same cells and with TNF stimulation, anethole did not induce the phosphorylation of MAP kinase. Besides NF-κB and MAP kinase, anethole also blocked TNF-induced JNK and AP-1.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [148] Chainy, 2000, Anethole blocks both early and late cellular responses transduced by tumor necrosis factor: effect on NF-kB, AP-1 JNK, MAPKK and apopotosis, Oncogene source

In the paper

“The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the essential oils are well documented; nevertheless their uses can be hampered due to the chemical variability of the oils.”

In the paper

“Recently, Cabrera and Prieto (2010) [153] were able, for the first time, to show the application of artificial neural networks (ANN) on the prediction of the antioxidant activity of essential oils in two experimental in vitro models: in the DPPH and linoleic acid models. They used about 30 components from 80 that are described as possessing antioxidant activity and the results confirmed that this”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [153] Cabrera, 2010, Application of artificial neural networks to the prediction of the antioxidant activity of essential oils in two experimental in vitro models, Food Chem. source

In the paper

“The authors concluded that citral could prevent the degradation of IκBα in LPS-induced inflammation and reduce the p50 NF-κB levels in nuclear fractions [121].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [121] Lin, 2008, Anti-inflammation activity of fruit essential oil from Cinnamomum insularimontanum Hayata, Bioresource Technol. source

In the paper

“The essential oil from the leaves of Juniperus oxycedrus L. of the Iberian flora, mainly constituted by α-pinene, showed a great inhibition of IL-1-induced NO production in the human chondrocytic cell line C-28/12. The same oil and a α-pinene-rich fraction reduced markedly IL-1-induced IκBα degradation and phosphorylation, NF-κB-DNA binding activity and NO production [152].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [152] Neves, 2010, Screening of five essential oils for identification of potential inhibitors of IL-1-induced NF-κB activation and NO production in human chondrocytes: characterization of the inhibitory activity of α-pinene, Planta Med. source

In the paper

“Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry oil not only significantly inhibited LPS-induced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-1b, in RAW 264.7 cells, as reported above, but also suppressed the mRNA expression of TNF-a and IL-1b as well as blocked LPS-induced transcriptional activation of NF-κB and nuclear translocation of p65 subunit [103].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“Several factors including harvesting time of the aromatic plant, climatic and agronomic conditions, vegetative development of the plant, the plant part used, type of extraction used can be considered as responsible for fluctuations in their chemical compositions.”

In the paper

“α-Humulene and trans-caryophyllene, the main constituents of Cordia verbenacea inhibited the LPS-induced NF-kB activation and neutrophil migration in the rat paw, however unable to inhibit LPS-induced MAP kinase activation [113].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [113] Medeiros, 2007, Effect of two active compounds obtained from the essential oil of Cordia verbenacea on the acute inflammatory responses elicited by LPS in the rat paw, Brit. J. Pharmacol. source

In the paper

“Zhou et al. (2007) [149] showed that 1,8-cineole inhibited the Egr-1 synthesis and nuclear localization induced by LPS in THP-1 cells but did not affect the LPS-induced NF-κB expression in nuclei.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [149] Zhou, 2007, Inhibitory effect of 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) on Erg-1 expression in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated THP-1 cells, Acta Pharmacol. Sin. source

In the paper

“Incubation of RAW 264.7 cells with Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss. oil, in which thymol and p-cymene predominated, induced a significant inhibitory effect on the LPS-induced NO production. Origanum syriacum L. predominatly composed by carvacrol and thymol did not show such ability [139].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [139] Loizzo, 2009, Chemical analysis, antioxidant, antiiflammatory and anticholinesterase activities of Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss. and Origanum syriacum L. essential oils, Food Chem. source

In the paper

“In human macrophage-like U937 cells, carvacrol suppressed LPS-induced COX-2 mRNA and protein expression, suggesting that carvacrol regulates COX-2 expression through its agonistic effect on PPARγ [132].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [132] Hotta, 2010, Carvacrol, a component of thyme oil, activates PPARα and γ and suppresses COX-2 expressio, J. Lipid Res. source

In the paper

“Artemisia fukudo Makino essential oil, mainly constituted by α-thujone, β-thujone, camphor, and caryophyllene attenuates LPS-induced inflammation by suppressing NF-κB and MAPK activation in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The essential oil in LPS-induced inflammation act through the reduction of IκBα phosphorilation and blockage of NF-κB and translocation of p50 and p65 units to the nucleus. The same oil”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [116] Yoon, 2010, Artemisia fukudo essential oil attenuates LPS-induced inflammation by suppressing NF-kB and MAPK activation in RAW264.7 macrophages, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

In the paper

“In another study, it was reported that in human macrophage-like U937 cells, citral suppressed both LPS-induced COX-2 mRNA and protein expression, dose-dependently. Moreover, citral induced the mRNA expression of the PPARα and the PPARγ, suggesting that citral activates PPARα andγ, and regulates COX-2 expression [147].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [147] Katsukawa, 2010, Citral, a component of lemongrass oil, activates PPARa and g and suppresses COX-2 expression, BBA-Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids source

In the paper

“PGE2 was only inhibited by LPS-stimulated macrophages J774.A1 cells when treated with high concentrations of (-)-linalool. The same was observed for the COX-2 expression. The same monoterpene inhibited NO release but did not inhibit the increase of iNOS expression indicating that the inhibitory activity of linalool was mainly attributed to the iNOS enzyme activity [142].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [142] Paena, 2006, (-)-Linalool inhibits in vitro NO formation. Probable involvement in the antinociceptive activity of this monoterpene compound, Life Sci. source

In the paper

“The essential oils of diverse Pimpinella species and their isolates were able to inhibit NF-kB transcription induced by phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) in SW1353 cells. However, they did not present similar activities. The most remarkable activity was reported for three Pimpinella species and five pure compounds: Pimpinella corymbosa Boiss., Pimpinella tragium Vill. ssp. polyclada (Boiss. et Heldr”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [146] Tabanca, 2007, Effect of essential oils and isolated compounds from Pimpinella species on NF-kB: a target for anti-inflammatory therapy, Phytother. Res. source

In the paper

“The same authors in another work, and using the essential oil of Illicium anisatum L., mainly constituted by 1,8-cineole, also demonstrated its capacity for inhibiting NO and PGE2 production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, along with the decrease of iNOS and COX-2 proteins and iNOS and COX-2 mRNA expression [145].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [145] Kim, 2009, Chemical composition, antioxidant, anti-elastase, and anti-inflammatory activities of Illicium anisatum essential oil, Acta Pharm. source

In the paper

“In addition to the effect of Cryptomeria japonica essential oil on the LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells, which presented a remarkable inhibition of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, as reported above, the authors also detected an inhibition of NO production by reducing iNOS protein and mRNA iNOS expression as well as a diminution of PGE2 due to the reduction of COX-2 protein and COX-2 mRNA expression [115].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [115] Yoon, 2009, Cryptomeria japonica essential oil inhibits the growth of drug-resistant skin pathogens and LPS-induced NO and pro-inflammatory cytokine production, Polish J. Microbiol.