CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 51Food Safety and HygieneSeaweed-derived Bioactive CompoundsFood Industry and Aquatic Biology

Current Status and Future Trends in Removal, Control, and Mitigation of Algae Food Safety Risks for Human Consumption

Open access
Wu, Guowei, Zhuang, Dingling, Chew, Kit Wayne, Ling, Tau Chuan, Khoo, Kuan Shiong, Van Quyen, Dong, Feng, Shuying, Show, Pau Loke·2022·Molecules
DOI 10.3390/molecules27196633PMC PMC9572256
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

With the rapid development of the economy and productivity, an increasing number of citizens are not only concerned about the nutritional value of algae as a potential new food resource but are also, in particular, paying more attention to the safety of its consumption. Many studies and reports pointed out that analyzing and solving seaweed food safety issues requires holistic and systematic consideration. The three main factors that have been found to affect the food safety of algal are physical, chemical, and microbiological hazards. At the same time, although food safety awareness among food producers and consumers has increased, foodborne diseases caused by algal food safety incidents occur frequently. It threatens the health and lives of consumers and may cause irreversible harm if treatment is not done promptly. A series of studies have also proved the idea that microbial contamination of algae is the main cause of this problem. Therefore, the rapid and efficient detection of toxic and pathogenic microbial contamination in algal products is an urgent issue that needs to be addressed. At the same time, two other factors, such as physical and chemical hazards, cannot be ignored. Nowadays, the detection techniques are mainly focused on three major hazards in traditional methods. However, especially for food microorganisms, the use of traditional microbiological control techniques is time-consuming and has limitations in terms of accuracy. In recent years, these two evaluations of microbial foodborne pathogens monitoring in the farm-to-table chain have shown more importance, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, there are also many new developments in the monitoring of heavy metals, algal toxins, and other pollutants. In the future, algal food safety risk assessment will not only focus on convenient, rapid, low-cost and high-accuracy detection but also be connected with some novel technologies, such as the Internet of Things (artificial intelligence, machine learning), biosensor, and molecular biology, to reach the purpose of simultaneous detection.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This narrative review summarizes physical, chemical, and biological hazards affecting algae food safety and discusses current and emerging detection, control, and mitigation technologies. It argues that microbial contamination is a major concern, while heavy metals, iodine, algal toxins, radioactive contamination, and other hazards also require integrated farm-to-table monitoring.

Key findings

  • The review identifies three main hazard categories for algal food safety: physical (foreign bodies, microplastics, radioactive contamination), chemical (iodine, heavy metals, sulfur dioxide, pesticide and veterinary drug residues), and biological (pathogenic bacteria, algal toxins, genetically modified seaweeds).
  • Microbial contamination is described as the main cause of algal food safety incidents, with pathogenic bacteria such as *Salmonella enterica*, *Vibrio parahaemolyticus*, *Staphylococcus aureus*, and *Shigella flexneri* specifically noted for testing in algal foods.
  • Reported hazard examples include radioactive cesium in frozen algae samples exceeding 3000 Bq kg−1 in May 2011, with maximum values of 7433.50 and 7371.20 Bq kg−1; iodine intake guidance cited as at least 70 μg/day and 150 μg/day recommended for adults, with a tolerable upper intake level of 600 μg/day in Europe; and a JEFA sulfur dioxide limit of not more than 0.7 mg/kg.
  • Detection trends include traditional methods plus newer approaches such as HPLC-MS, LC-ICP-MS, UPLC-MS/MS, biosensors, high-throughput sequencing, and Internet of Things (AI, machine learning) for rapid, low-cost, simultaneous monitoring.

Methods

  • Design: narrative review integrating prior studies and reports on removal, control, and mitigation of algae food safety risks for human consumption.
  • Data or sample: no primary sample; the paper synthesizes literature and reports from Europe, South America, Asia, and other regions, including examples from Japan, South Korea, New Zealand, Italy, and the UK.
  • Main analysis: qualitative synthesis of physical, chemical, and biological hazards, with comparisons of detection techniques and discussion of future trends; no systematic review protocol or meta-analysis is described.

Limitations

  • The paper does not include a formal limitations section.
  • Stated evidence gaps include insufficient evidence for microplastics in seaweeds, few high-throughput sequencing operations on algal food, and few studies on algae grown in wastewater and processed into food.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it lacks a described systematic search strategy, inclusion/exclusion criteria, and quantitative synthesis, so findings are selective rather than exhaustive.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/molecules27196633

Cites

151 of 151 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 80 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    There is currently insufficient evidence for the presence of microplastics in seaweeds.

    “Although there is not sufficient evidence for the presence of microplastics in seaweeds currently [60]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) (2016). Presence of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food, with Particular Focus on Seafood. EFSA J., 14, e04501. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    A main reason for foreign bodies is that some employees do not comply with GMP personnel hygiene requirements, leading to potential inclusion of physical contaminants such as jewelry, hair, plastics, or other foreign materials.

    “The main reason for this issue is that some employees do not comply with the personnel hygiene requirements of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) (e.g., 21 CFR 117.10), leading to the potential inclusion of physical contaminants such as jewelry, hair, plastics, or other foreign materials [25,57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25] Banach, 2020, Food Safety Hazards in the European Seaweed Chain, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [57] U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2015). Current Good Manufacturing Practice, Hazard Analysis, and Risk-Based Preventive Controls for Human Food, FDA. 21 C.F.R. § 117.10.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    Some parts of laws and regulations on seaweed products are out of date after technological development and the transformation of Industry 4.0 to 5.0.

    “However, after years of changes in technological development and the transformation of industry 4.0 to 5.0 in algae [30], some parts of laws and regulations are out of date.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] ElFar, 2021, Prospects of Industry 5.0 in Algae: Customization of Production and New Advance Technology for Clean Bioenergy Generation, Energy Convers. Manag. X

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Lack of regular maintenance of food processing equipment can cause parts of equipment to appear in seaweed production.

    “Meanwhile, due to the lack of regular maintenance of the equipment of food processing enterprises, parts of the equipment will appear in the production of seaweeds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [58] Matos, 2017, The Impact of Microalgae in Food Science and Technology, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [59] Enzing, C., Ploeg, M., Barbosa, M., and Sijtsma, L. (2014). Microalgae-Based Products for the Food and Feed Sector: An Outlook for Europe, Joint Research Centre. JRC Scientific and Policy Reports.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisereasoning

    Foreign bodies are still not completely avoided in algae food processing.

    “Although many detection techniques and equipment are used on the production line, foreign bodies are still not completely avoided in the algae food processing process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25] Banach, 2020, Food Safety Hazards in the European Seaweed Chain, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [57] U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2015). Current Good Manufacturing Practice, Hazard Analysis, and Risk-Based Preventive Controls for Human Food, FDA. 21 C.F.R. § 117.10.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. 26
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 18

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Undaria pinnatifida had the most types and highest concentration of nuclear radiation among seaweed species analyzed from Fukushima data.

    “According to their idea of comparing cesium ratios of different nuclides, the data measured by Kawai et al. in 2014 [62] were conducted graphic analysis (Figure 2) and it was found that Undaria Pinnatifida had the most types and the highest concentration of nuclear radiation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Kawai, 2014, Radioactive Cesium Accumulation in Seaweeds by the Fukushima 1 Nuclear Power Plant Accident-Two Years’ Monitoring at Iwaki and Its Vicinity, J. Plant Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is no direct evidence of toxic effects from consumption of astaxanthin-rich microalgae in rats through acute and subchronic toxicity studies, but intake amount needs attention.

    “Stewart (2008) found that there is no direct evidence of toxic effects from the consumption of astaxanthin-rich microalgae in rats through acute and subchronic toxicity studies, but it needs to pay attention to the amount of intake [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Stewart, 2008, Safety Assessment of Astaxanthin-Rich Microalgae Biomass: Acute and Subchronic Toxicity Studies in Rats, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Future algal food safety risk assessment will focus on convenient, rapid, low-cost, high-accuracy detection and connect with novel technologies such as the Internet of Things, biosensors, and molecular biology for simultaneous detection.

    “In the future, algal food safety risk assessment will not only focus on convenient, rapid, low-cost and high-accuracy detection but also be connected with some novel technologies, such as the Internet of Things (artificial intelligence, machine learning), biosensor, and molecular biology, to reach the purpose of simultaneous detection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Traditional microbiological control techniques are time-consuming and have limitations in accuracy.
    • Rests on an assumption: There are many new developments in the monitoring of heavy metals, algal toxins, and other pollutants.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Algal food safety incidents occur in Europe, South America, and Asia, causing consumers to face problems.

    “Despite edible algae contain plenty of vitamins, micronutrients, and many plant compounds, according to the relevant research reports from Europe, South America, and Asia, the algae food safety situation demonstrates that consumers have to face the problems caused by food safety incidents [25,26,27].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [25] Banach, 2020, Food Safety Hazards in the European Seaweed Chain, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] 2020, Minerals in Edible Seaweed: Health Benefits and Food Safety Issues, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27] Tanna, 2019, Nutraceutical Potential of Seaweed Polysaccharides: Structure, Bioactivity, Safety, and Toxicity, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Excessive consumption of SO2-treated foods can irritate the mucosal systems of the respiratory tract and lungs, and may be accompanied by headaches, eye inflammation, vomiting, and diarrhea.

    “Some studies have indicated that excessive consumption of SO2-treated foods can irritate the mucosal systems of the respiratory tract and lungs, and may be accompanied by headaches, eye inflammation, vomiting, and diarrhea [100].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [100] Guerrero, 2015, Demonstrating the Efficiency of Sulphur Dioxide Replacements in Wine: A Parameter Review, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Intake of too much or too little iodine can cause the thyroid gland to fail to work properly, resulting in varying degrees of metabolic dysfunction, which affects human health.

    “Previous research has demonstrated that intake of too much or too little iodine can cause the thyroid gland to fail to work properly, resulting in varying degrees of metabolic dysfunction, which affects human health [73].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Camargo, 2007, Iodine Nutrition: More Is Better?, Arq. Bras. Endocrinol. Metabol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Seaweeds as a marine source have the highest iodine content among foods.

    “The amount of iodine in foods varies; seaweeds as a marine source have the highest iodine [70].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Pearce, 2013, Global Iodine Nutrition: Where Do We Stand in 2013?, Thyroid source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    GC-ECD detection is commonly used and has a detection limit of 0.5 mg/kg.

    “Gas chromatography-electron capture detector (GC-ECD) detection is commonly used and has a detection limit of 0.5 mg/kg [86] (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86] Yeh, 2014, Analysis of Iodine Content in Seaweed by GC-ECD and Estimation of Iodine Intake, J. Food Drug Anal. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Miniaturized dielectric barrier discharge-molecular emission spectrometry determines total sulfur dioxide in algae food with a good linear relationship, accurate detection results, low cost, and compact and small detection equipment.

    “In addition, the total sulfur dioxide in algae food was determined by miniaturized dielectric barrier discharge—molecular emission spectrometry, this method has a good linear relationship, accurate detection results, low cost, compact and small detection equipment [106].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [106] Ji, 2020, Integrated ABR and UASB System for Dairy Wastewater Treatment: Engineering Design and Practice, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    One main source of sulfur dioxide in algae is adsorption of sulfate and other sulfur substances from the growth environment, but the content is small.

    “One is the algae in the growth environment adsorption sulfate and other sulfur substances, but the content is small [99].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [99] Zhang, 2016, SO2/NOx emissions and ash formation from algae biomass combustion: Process characteristics and mechanisms, Energy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Insufficient iodine intake can lead to decreased thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion, leading to decreased human metabolism, especially in women.

    “At the same time, insufficient iodine intake can lead to a decrease in thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion, leading to a decrease in human metabolism, especially in women [75,76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [75] Du, Y., Gao, Y., Meng, F., Liu, S., Fan, Z., Wu, J., and Sun, D. (2014). Iodine Deficiency and Excess Coexist in China and Induce Thyroid Dysfunction and Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS ONE, 9. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] Cavedon, 2016, Iodine Status from Childhood to Adulthood in Females Living in North-East Italy: Iodine Deficiency Is Still an Issue, Eur. J. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The amount of radioactive cesium in ocean algae fell quite fast from May to July, possibly due to algae blooms in June and July and die-off of algae that absorbed radiation.

    “Comparing the measurements taken in May with those taken in July, the amount of radioactive cesium in algae in the ocean is falling quite fast. This may be due to algae blooms in the ocean during June and July; meanwhile, the algae that absorb large amounts of radiation die off.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The limit for sulfur dioxide in food set by JEFA is not more than 0.7 mg/kg.

    “in which the limit set by JEFA is not more than 0.7 mg/kg [103].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [103] Zhang, 2014, Risk Analysis of Sulfites Used as Food Additives in China, Biomed. Environ. Sci.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Methylmercury can cause chronic toxic reactions after entering the human body, which may lead to great pain or organ failure.

    “Methylmercury, as an organic compound, can cause chronic toxic reactions after entering the human body, which may lead to great pain or organ failure [91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] 2015, Risk Profile of Methylmercury in Seafood, Curr. Opin. Food Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Spectrophotometric method can quickly and effectively analyze iodine content in algae samples.

    “The previous study has shown that the spectrophotometric method can quickly and effectively analyze the iodine content in algae samples [83].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [83] Nunes, 2019, Validation of a Spectrophotometric Methodology for a Rapid Iodine Analysis in Algae and Seaweed Casts, Algal Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    ICP-AES and ICP-MS have been used to determine iodine concentrations.

    “Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) have been used to determine iodine concentrations [84,85].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [84] Milinovic, 2021, Determination of Total Iodine Content in Edible Seaweeds: Application of Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy, Algal Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [85] Badocco, 2016, A Procedure for the Quantification of Total Iodine by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, and Its Application to the Determination of Iodine in Algae Sampled in the Lagoon of Venice, Anal. Methods source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The measurement of mercury content in algae food has evolved from original chemical methods to rapid determination methods, including a rapid detection kit for heavy metal-polluted water and a rapid method for mercury in spirulina health food.

    “In terms of algal food safety testing technology, the measurement of mercury content in algae food from the original chemical method to the present rapid determination, for example, a simple and rapid detection kit for the toxicity of heavy metal-polluted water [96] and a method for the rapid determination of mercury content in spirulina health food, were established (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [96] Eom, 2021, A Simple and Rapid Algal Assay Kit to Assess Toxicity of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Water, Environ. Pollut. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are many studies on wastewater treatment using microalgae, but few studies on algae growing in wastewater environments and being processed into food.

    “At present, there are many studies on wastewater treatment using microalgae [110,111], but there are few researches on algae growing in wastewater environment and being processed into food.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [110] Li, 2020, Environment-Enhancing Process for Algal Wastewater Treatment, Heavy Metal Control and Hydrothermal Biofuel Production: A Critical Review, Bioresour. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [111] Cai, 2020, Algal Toxicity Induced by Effluents from Textile-Dyeing Wastewater Treatment Plants, J. Environ. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Inadequate iodine intake can lead to goiter, reduction in thyroid hormone levels, damage to the brain's central nervous system; in children, intellectual disability and slow reaction.

    “Inadequate iodine intake can lead to goiter, which is an enlargement of the neck, along with a reduction in thyroid hormone levels, which can damage the brain’s central nervous system. For children, it will lead to intellectual disability and slow reaction, affecting normal growth and development [74].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] Li, 2012, The Changing Epidemiology of Iodine Deficiency, Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Pre-column derivatization improves the sensitivity of liquid chromatography for the determination of sulfur dioxide in foods.

    “Furthermore, a recent study used pre-column derivatization to improve the sensitivity of liquid chromatography for the determination of sulfur dioxide in foods [107] (Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [107] Mu, 2022, Determination of Sulfur Dioxide in Food by Liquid Chromatography with Pre-Column Derivatization, Food Control. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most pesticides are fat soluble, such as organophosphorus pesticides and organochlorine pesticides, and accumulate in fat in the human body, resulting in neurotoxic symptoms and even death.

    “because most pesticides are fat soluble [108], such as organophosphorus pesticides and organochlorine pesticides, and will accumulate in the fat in the human body. Resulting in neurotoxic symptoms and even death.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [108] Tien, 2012, Assessing the Toxicity of Organophosphorous Pesticides to Indigenous Algae with Implication for Their Ecotoxicological Impact to Aquatic Ecosystems, J. Environ. Sci. Health Part B source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the early stage of the Fukushima nuclear accident (May 2011), Cs content in most frozen algae samples was higher than 3000 Bq/kg, with maximum 7433.50 and 7371.20 Bq/kg, indicating nuclear pollution to algae was most serious in the early stage.

    “In the early stage of the impact of nuclear leakage on algae (May 2011), the Cs and Cs content measured in most frozen algae samples were higher than 3000 Bq kg−1, with the maximum content reaching 7433.50 and 7371.20 Bq kg−1, respectively, indicating that the nuclear pollution to algae was the most serious in the early stage of radiation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Kawai, 2014, Radioactive Cesium Accumulation in Seaweeds by the Fukushima 1 Nuclear Power Plant Accident-Two Years’ Monitoring at Iwaki and Its Vicinity, J. Plant Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Excessive sulfur dioxide in the body will induce the production of cancer cells, posing a huge potential threat to human health.

    “The most serious problem is that excessive sulfur dioxide in the body will induce the production of cancer cells, a huge potential threat to human health [101].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [101] Qin, 2015, Sulfur Dioxide and Benzo(a)Pyrene Trigger Apoptotic and Anti-Apoptotic Signals at Different Post-Exposure Times in Mouse Liver, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adults need at least 70 μg of iodine a day and the recommended intake is 150 micrograms per day.

    “In general, adults need at least 70 μg of iodine a day and the recommended intake is 150 micrograms per day [81].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Zimmermann, 2009, Iodine: It’s Important in Patients That Require Parenteral Nutrition, Gastroenterology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Samples for pesticide residue detection are trace amounts, so improving the sensitivity and detection limit of detection instruments and equipment has become the focus of researchers.

    “however, the samples for pesticide residue detection are trace amounts, so improving the sensitivity and detection limit of detection instruments and equipment has become the focus of researchers [113].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113] Narenderan, 2020, Review of Pesticide Residue Analysis in Fruits and Vegetables. Pre-Treatment, Extraction and Detection Techniques, Food Res. Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Large-scale cultivation of genetically modified microalgae will cause damage to the current ecological environment and increase the risk of horizontal gene transfer through transgenic algae to other organisms due to the accumulation of the food chain.

    “Another study has demonstrated that the large-scale cultivation of genetically modified microalgae will cause damage to the current ecological environment and increase the risk of horizontal gene transfer through transgenic algae to other organisms in the environment due to the accumulation of the food chain [147].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [147] Ariawan, E., and Stanley Makalew, A. (2018, January 24–26). Smart Micro Farm: Sustainable Algae Spirulina Growth Monitoring System. Proceedings of the 2018 10th International Conference on Information Technology and Electrical Engineering (ICITEE), Bali, Indonesia. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to research on alpha-cypermethrin, the lipophilic pyrethroid pesticide toxicity of chlorella exhibits acute and chronic toxicity to the human body, causes insomnia and mental disorders, and may cause DNA mutations.

    “According to research on alpha-cypermethrin, the lipophilic pyrethroid pesticide toxicity of chlorella, it is found that toxic reaction to the human body than other pesticides (nausea, vomiting, dizziness), exhibits acute and chronic toxicity, causes insomnia and mental disorders, and may cause DNA mutations [112].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [112] Baruah, 2020, Ecotoxicological Effects of Alpha-Cypermethrin on Freshwater Alga Chlorella Sp.: Growth Inhibition and Oxidative Stress Studies, Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Algal toxin caused significant damage to the liver, kidneys, and reproductive function of mice, and the toxic damage is not reversible.

    “For example, Aubaeed et al. performed toxicological tests on mice using different doses of toxins produced by blue-green algae, and the obtained results explained that the algal toxin caused significant damage to the liver, kidneys, and reproductive function of the mice. In addition, the toxic damage is not reversible [127].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [127] Aubaeed, 2020, Toxic Effects of Neurotoxins (Anatoxin-a) Purified from Blue-Green Algae Pseudoanbaena Limnetica on Some Organs in Laboratory Mice (Mus Musculus L.), Int. J. Pharm. Res.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ganjewar's food monitoring framework predicts and analyses data recorded by sensors to determine factors affecting food spoilage.

    “It also predicts and analyses the data recorded by sensors to determine the factors affecting food spoilage [150].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [150] Josić, D., Peršurić, Ž., Rešetar, D., Martinović, T., Saftić, L., and Kraljević Pavelić, S. (2017). Use of Foodomics for Control of Food Processing and Assessing of Food Safety. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, Academic Press. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The drugs used in aquaculture eventually end up in the aquaculture environment, leading to the problem of veterinary drug residues in the produced algae food.

    “Both results show that the drugs used in aquaculture eventually end up in the aquaculture environment, leading to the problem of veterinary drug residues in the produced algae food.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [114] Xu, 2019, Toxic Effects of Tetracycline and Its Degradation Products on Freshwater Green Algae, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [115] Rosa, 2020, Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture Systems—Potential Risks for Food Safety, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Algal toxins are phytotoxins, toxic metabolites produced by algae that can accumulate in food.

    “According to the book The Water Environment: Algal Toxins and Health, algal toxins are phytotoxins. They are toxic metabolites produced by algae that can accumulate in our food [25].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Banach, 2020, Food Safety Hazards in the European Seaweed Chain, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Microcystin in blue-green algae is a liver toxin that can directly bind to target cell receptors in the human liver.

    “According to the author, microcystin in blue-green algae is a liver toxin, which can directly bind to the target cell receptors in the human liver [123].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [123] Lindon, 2009, Blue-Green Algal Toxin (Microcystin) Levels in Minnesota Lakes, Lake Reserv. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ganjewar used IoT to build a food monitoring framework to prevent food spoilage due to changes in environmental conditions during storage.

    “Two years later, Ganjewar also used the IoT to build a food monitoring framework to prevent food spoilage due to changes in environmental conditions during the storage period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [150] Josić, D., Peršurić, Ž., Rešetar, D., Martinović, T., Saftić, L., and Kraljević Pavelić, S. (2017). Use of Foodomics for Control of Food Processing and Assessing of Food Safety. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, Academic Press. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A blueprint for a smart micro-farm was constructed in 2018 to create a system of sustainable algae spirulina growth monitoring.

    “Eko Ariawan and Stanley A. Makalew address the problem to create a system of sustainable algae spirulina growth monitoring; they constructed a blueprint for a smart micro-farm in 2018 [148].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [148] Witjaksono, 2018, IOT for Agriculture: Food Quality and Safety, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Various countries have formulated maximum residue limit standards for pesticides.

    “To solve the problem of pesticide residues, various countries have formulated the corresponding maximum residue limit (MRL) standards for pesticides;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113] Narenderan, 2020, Review of Pesticide Residue Analysis in Fruits and Vegetables. Pre-Treatment, Extraction and Detection Techniques, Food Res. Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

35 of 35

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Traditional microbiological control techniques are time-consuming and have limitations in accuracy.

    “However, especially for food microorganisms, the use of traditional microbiological control techniques is time-consuming and has limitations in terms of accuracy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are many new developments in the monitoring of heavy metals, algal toxins, and other pollutants.

    “Meanwhile, there are also many new developments in the monitoring of heavy metals, algal toxins, and other pollutants.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Iodine in algae is volatile and easily reduced or oxidized.

    “Iodine in algae is volatile and easily reduced or oxidized, so it is challenging to determine the iodine content in seaweed food.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Consumable reagents such as pentafluoro derivatization reagents are quite expensive.

    “However, the consumable reagents, such as pentafluoro derivatization reagents, are quite expensive.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Using HPLC-MS to determine arsenic content in seaweed products is currently a common and efficient method.

    “Using HPLC-MS to determine arsenic content in seaweed products is currently a common and efficient method.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Another main source of sulfur dioxide in algae is addition of sulfur dioxide during food production and processing.

    “The other is adding sulfur dioxide to algal food in food production and processing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The main factor affecting the food safety of algae is the amount of sulfur dioxide.

    “However, the main factor affecting the food safety of algae is the amount of sulfur dioxide.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Three methods to detect sulfur dioxide residues in food are colorimetry, titration, and chromatography.

    “To detect the contamination on sulfur dioxide on seaweed, there are three methods to detect sulfur dioxide residues in food: colorimetry, titration, and chromatography in the current stage.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Antibiotics, antimicrobials, and pesticides are widely used during the breeding process.

    “According to the reports from 2013 to 2020, some evidence has indicated that antibiotics, antimicrobials, and pesticides are widely used during the period of the breeding process.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are few HTS operations on algal food.

    “However, there are few HTS operations on algal food.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most pathogenic bacteria in algal foods can be thermally sterilized.

    “For the removal, control, and mitigation of these microorganisms that cause foodborne illness, most pathogenic bacteria in algal foods can be thermally sterilized.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Blue-green algae produce a variety of phytotoxins, especially neurotoxins.

    “Furthermore, blue-green algae produce a variety of phytotoxins, especially neurotoxins.”
12 of 12

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Three factors affect safety of algae foods in relation to algae: physical and chemical pollutions and microbiological contaminations.

    “There are three factors that affect the safety of algae foods in relation to the algae. These may be physical and chemical pollutions and microbiological contaminations [149].”

    From Challenges in Functional Food Products with the Incorporation of Some Microalgae (2024) · cites this paper as [149]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Sulfur-dioxide detection method cites a wastewater paper

    Minor

    The cited reference 106 concerns dairy wastewater treatment, not the stated sulfur-dioxide measurement method. Reference 102 in the paper's own list has the title matching that method.

  • Smart micro-farm study is assigned the wrong reference number

    Minor

    The text attributes the smart micro-farm study to Ariawan and Makalew but cites reference 148, whose listed authors and title are different. Their smart micro-farm paper is listed as reference 147.

  • Radiation study is attributed to different authors than its citation

    Minor

    The text attributes the cited 2014 study to Yoshimura and Akama, whereas reference 62 lists Kawai and colleagues.

  • Study described as involving patients is titled as a mouse study

    Minor

    The text describes an ethanol-extract result in patients with type II diabetes, but the cited study's title identifies its subjects as diabetic mice.

  • Ganjewar's 2020 study cites a different 2017 paper

    Minor

    The passage names Ganjewar and places the work two years after the 2018 study, but reference 150 is a 2017 Foodomics paper by other authors. The listed Ganjewar food-monitoring paper is reference 149.

  • Genome-comparison study cites a cultivation paper

    Minor

    The passage cites reference 146 for a genome-based allergy comparison, but reference 146 is titled as a study of large-scale cultivation and environmental risk. The genome-comparison title appears under reference 145.

  • Environmental-risk claim cites a micro-farm paper

    Minor

    The claim about environmental damage from large-scale cultivation cites reference 147, which is a smart micro-farm monitoring paper. Reference 146 is the listed large-scale-cultivation study.

7 of 7

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Barsanti, L., and Gualtieri, P. (2005). Algae, CRC Press.
  2. Zailanie, 2016, Dietary Fiber and Fatty Acids in the Thallus of Brown Alga (Sargassum Duplicatum J.G. Agardh), Int. Food Res. J., 23, 1584
  3. Goswami, 2015, Diverse Applications of Algae, Int. J. Adv. Res. Sci. Eng., 4, 1102
  4. Nichols, C., Ching-Lee, M., Daquip, C.-L., Elm, J., Kamagai, W., Low, E., and Park, S.Y. (2017, January 4–8). Outbreak of salmonellosis associated with seaweed from a local aquaculture farm-Oahu, 2016. Proceedings of the CSTE Annual Conference, Boise, ID, USA.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Wu, G., Zhuang, D., Chew, K. W., Ling, T. C., Khoo, K. S., Van Quyen, D., Feng, S., & Show, P. L.
Affiliations
  • Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih 43500, Malaysia
  • University of Malaya (MY)
  • Nanyang Technological University (SG)
  • Yuan Ze University (TW)
  • Institute of Biotechnology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST), Hanoi 100803, Vietnam
  • Henan University of Chinese Medicine (CN)
  • Wenzhou University (CN)
Corresponding author
  • Chew, Kit Wayne
  • Feng, Shuying
  • Show, Pau Loke
ORCID
Venue
Molecules
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2022-10-06
Volume
27
Issue
19
Pages
6633
ISSN
1420-3049 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/molecules27196633
PMC
PMC9572256
OpenAlex
W4303958971
Semantic Scholar
23ba74b89368d7d6b92f3c7782360efd3fbd9a10
Cited by
51
References
151
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 8 · 2021: 1
FWCI
0.87
Type
journal article
Language
en
Update notices
correction (2022-10-06)
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Molecules (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Fundamental Research Grant Scheme, Malaysia (FRGS/1/2020/SKK01/UM/01/1, ST012-2020, IIRG004A-19IISS)
  • Universiti Malaya and Ministry of Education, Malaysia under SATU joint research scheme (FRGS/1/2020/SKK01/UM/01/1, ST012-2020, IIRG004A-19IISS)
  • Impact Oriented Interdisciplinary Research Grant (FRGS/1/2020/SKK01/UM/01/1, ST012-2020, IIRG004A-19IISS)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food Safety and Hygiene
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Seaweed-derived Bioactive Compounds
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food Industry and Aquatic Biology
Keywords
foodborne pathogens, microbial contamination, algal toxins, heavy metal contamination, food safety risk assessment, rapid detection, biosensors, Internet of Things, molecular detection, COVID-19 pandemic
MeSH terms
COVID-19, Artificial Intelligence, Environmental Pollutants, Food Microbiology, Foodborne Diseases, Humans, Pandemics, Food Safety

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review