Top-Down Dysregulation—From ADHD to Emotional Instability

Cognitive reappraisal tasks modulate processing of emotional stimuli in amygdala and ventral striatum.

“Cognitive reappraisal tasks have been found to modulate the processing of emotional stimuli in regions such as amygdala and the ventral striatum (Buhle et al., 2014).”

• cites Buhle et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report reduced activation during reappraisal in bilateral amygdala clusters, with the left cluster extending into the ventral striatum. They found no separate cluster elsewhere, and the Discussion treats ventral-striatal modulation as a possibility rather than a consistent finding. The claim therefore overstates the evidence for the ventral striatum. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Some parts of cACC are highly involved in emotional processes including negative valence such as pain unpleasantness, social exclusion, and fear potentiation/appraisal.

“In fact, some parts of cACC are highly involved in emotional processes that include negative valence such as pain unpleasantness (Vogt et al., 1993), social exclusion (Eisenberger, 2012) and fear potentiation and appraisal (Etkin et al., 2011; Milad and Quirk, 2012).”

• cites Vogt et al., 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Eisenberger, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Etkin et al., 2011 sourceSupported

Emotional instability disorders are characterized by emotional hyper-responsiveness in amygdala and insula, regions involved in shaping emotional responses and experience.

“These “emotional instability disorders” are characterized by emotional hyper-responsiveness in amygdala and insula, regions involved in shaping emotional responses and experience (Blair, 2010; Rubia, 2011; Blair et al., 2014; Glenn and Raine, 2014; Krause-Utz et al., 2014).”

• cites Blair, 2010 sourcePartly supported

  In “Testing the Models > Maladaptive Reactive Aggression” (page unavailable), the review reports increased amygdala responses to threatening stimuli in groups at heightened risk of reactive aggression, including patients with borderline personality disorder. It does not report insula hyper-responsiveness in those groups or establish the claimed role of both regions in shaping emotional experience. Its discussion of the insula concerns psychopathy instead. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Rubia, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Blair et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The “Heightened Threat Sensitivity” section (page not supplied) reports elevated amygdala responses to threat in youth with conduct problems without callous–unemotional traits. It does not establish hyper-responsiveness in the insula or characterize emotional instability disorders generally this way; it also describes reduced amygdala responses in youth with callous–unemotional traits. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In Wager et al. (2008), when rated success of emotional regulation was regressed on cognitive reappraisal contrast, dlPFC contribution was smaller and lOFC/vlPFC larger than in standard subtraction analysis.

“In one of the studies (Wager et al., 2008), when the rated success of emotional regulation was regressed on the cognitive reappraisal of emotion contrast, the dlPFC contribution was smaller and that of the lOFC/vlPFC larger than in the standard subtraction analysis (Figure 5).”

• cites Wager et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Results sections on reappraisal-related activations and correlates of reappraisal success (Figures 2A–B; pages unavailable) describe a standard contrast activating dorsal and ventral PFC, followed by a regression that identifies bilateral vlPFC among regions associated with rated success. This supports the broad contrast between the analyses, but the text does not explicitly compare the size of dlPFC and vlPFC contributions or identify a larger lateral OFC contribution. (LLM, conf=0.81)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

There is little support for a general division between an emotional and a non-emotional cingulate.

“Importantly, although the rACC and cACC differ in their involvement in attentional tasks—as has long been suggested (Bush et al., 2000)—there is little support for a general division between an emotional and a non-emotional cingulate (Etkin et al., 2011; Okon-Singer et al., 2015).”

• cites Etkin et al., 2011 sourceSupported
• cites Okon-Singer et al., 2015 sourceSupported

Amygdala modulates visual processing of threat cues.

“For example, ample data suggest that amygdala modulates visual processing of threat cues (Vuilleumier and Driver, 2007; Vuilleumier, 2015).”

• cites Vuilleumier and Driver, 2007 sourceSupported
• cites Vuilleumier, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Dysfunctions in cognitive core processes underpin the fundamental behavioral components that are coupled to different psychiatric states.

“Dysfunctions in these processes underpin the fundamental behavioral components that are coupled to different psychiatric states (Insel et al., 2010; Cuthbert and Insel, 2013).”

• cites Insel et al., 2010 sourcePartly supported

  In the RDoC framework discussion (Am J Psychiatry 167:7, July 2010; page not identified in our copy), Insel et al. describe mental illness in terms of dysfunctional neural circuits and give examples of circuitry–behavior relationships, including executive function. They also include cognition as a domain of function. The paper presents these as assumptions guiding research, however, rather than establishing that dysfunctions in cognitive processes underpin the behavioral components of different psychiatric states. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Cuthbert and Insel, 2013 sourceSupported

Structurally, the gray matter volumes of amygdala and insula are often reduced in emotional instability disorders.

“Structurally, the gray matter volumes of amygdala and insula are often reduced in such disorders (Blair, 2010; Rubia, 2011; Blair et al., 2014; Glenn and Raine, 2014; Krause-Utz et al., 2014).”

• cites Blair, 2010 sourcePartly supported

  In “Maladaptive Instrumental Aggression” (page unavailable), the review reports reduced amygdala volume in adults with psychopathic traits and reduced insula gray-matter volume in adult samples. It does not establish that both are often reduced across emotional-instability disorders; it also reports increased gray-matter volume in the insula-related regions among youth with psychopathic tendencies. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Rubia, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Blair et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The References section (page unavailable) cites a study associating lower amygdala volume in men with childhood aggression, psychopathic traits, and future violence. That lends limited support to the amygdala-volume portion, but the paper does not report reduced insula volume or establish that both volumes are often reduced across emotional-instability disorders. Its Neurocognitive Dysfunctions sections discuss amygdala responses and function rather than structural volume. (LLM, conf=0.70)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The emotional Stroop task regularly shows prefrontal activations in dlPFC and lOFC/vlPFC.

“The emotional Stroop task regularly shows prefrontal activations both in dlPFC and lateral orbitofrontal cortex (lOFC)/vlPFC (Eippert et al., 2007; Wager et al., 2008; Kanske et al., 2011; Golkar et al., 2012; Buhle et al., 2014)”

• cites Eippert et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wager et al., 2008 sourceCould not verify

  The Results section on reappraisal-related activations reports dorsal and ventral prefrontal activity during reappraisal, not during an emotional Stroop task. The Methods describe picture-viewing and reappraisal conditions; a search for “emotional Stroop” found no passage addressing whether that task regularly activates dlPFC and lateral OFC/vlPFC. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Kanske et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In Golkar et al. (2012), a neutral control state revealed more specific activation in lOFC/vlPFC.

“In another study (Golkar et al., 2012), a neutral control state was introduced which contained non-emotional aspects of the task, and the interaction revealed more specific activation also in the lOFC/vlPFC.”

• cites Golkar et al., 2012 sourceSupported

Similar structural abnormalities have been observed in other emotional instability disorders such as ASPD.

“Similar structural abnormalities have also been observed in other emotional instability disorders such as ASPD (Yang and Raine, 2009).”

• cites Yang and Raine, 2009 sourceSupported

lOFC has been activated in several placebo treatment studies, often in co-activation with rACC.

“The lOFC has been activated in several placebo treatment studies (often in co-activation with rACC) as indicated by meta-analysis (Atlas and Wager, 2014; Wager and Atlas, 2015; Figure 6A) including placebo analgesia (Petrovic et al., 2002; Lieberman et al., 2004; Wager et al., 2004) and emotional placebo (Petrovic et al., 2005).”

• cites Atlas and Wager, 2014 sourceSupported
• cites Wager and Atlas, 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Neuroimaging evidence section reports placebo-related increases in the mid-lateral OFC across several pain studies and also identifies increases in the rostral cingulate. It does not establish that the two regions were often co-activated in the same studies, or extend the lateral-OFC finding to emotional placebo studies. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Petrovic et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Up to 65% of men with ASPD were reported to present comorbid ADHD.

“Up to 65% of men with ASPD were reported to present comorbid ADHD (Semiz et al., 2008).”

• cites Semiz et al., 2008 sourceSupported

Recent models of OFC function emphasize involvement in constructing expected values based on multimodal inputs that drive behavior.

“Recent models of a general OFC function emphasize involvement in constructing expected values based on multimodal inputs (including current internal states) that drive behavior (Schoenbaum and Roesch, 2005; Murray et al., 2007; Schoenbaum et al., 2009; Rudebeck and Murray, 2014).”

• cites Schoenbaum and Roesch, 2005 sourceSupported
• cites Murray et al., 2007 sourceSupported
• cites Schoenbaum et al., 2009 sourcePartly supported

  In “The OFC signals outcome expectancies” (page unavailable), the paper proposes that the OFC predicts outcomes’ sensory characteristics and unique values from cues and circumstances; its behavioural-studies discussion says these expectancies drive behaviour. The cited paper does not clearly identify current internal states as inputs to that OFC construction. In “Conclusions and future directions” (page unavailable), it instead links changes in internal motivational state to general affective-value signalling by other regions. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

vmPFC modulates amygdala processing of conditioned fear by suppressing fear responses.

“The vmPFC is thought to modulate amygdala processing of conditioned fear by suppressing fear responses through a set of amygdala neurons in the intercalated region between the basolateral and central amygdala nucleus (Milad and Quirk, 2012).”

• cites Milad and Quirk, 2012 sourceSupported

The comorbidity between ADHD and the different emotional instability disorders is remarkably large.

“The comorbidity between ADHD and the different emotional instability disorders is remarkably large.”

• cites Philipsen et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The ‘History of childhood ADHD and severity of borderline personality disorder’ section (page not available) describes a high association between ADHD and borderline personality disorder. The Results report high childhood and adult ADHD prevalence among participants with borderline personality disorder. The paper does not establish similarly high comorbidity across different emotional instability disorders. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Anckarsater et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Semiz et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (page not available) report that 68 of 105 men with antisocial personality disorder (65%) also met ADHD criteria, supporting substantial comorbidity for that disorder. The paper lists other personality disorders in the sample but does not establish similarly large ADHD comorbidity across different emotional instability disorders. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

42% comorbidity between ADHD and BPD was reported in adolescence and 16% in adulthood in a BPD sample.

“For example, 42% comorbidity between ADHD and BPD was reported in adolescence and 16% in adulthood in a BPD sample (Philipsen et al., 2008)”

• cites Philipsen et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The ‘ADHD in people with borderline personality disorder’ section reports childhood ADHD in 41.8% and adult ADHD in 16.1% of women with BPD, supporting the approximate percentages. The source describes the first figure as retrospectively reported childhood ADHD, not ADHD specifically in adolescence; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Emotional instability disorders (BPD, ASPD, CD) have a high rate of comorbidity with ADHD and ADHD symptoms.

“Although all these disorders have a high rate of comorbidity with ADHD and with ADHD symptoms, they are unquestionably different from classical DSM-5 ADHD.”

• cites Philipsen et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The ‘ADHD in people with borderline personality disorder’ section reports high rates of childhood ADHD symptoms and some adult ADHD among women with BPD. The paper does not establish a high rate of ADHD comorbidity for antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) or conduct disorder (CD); its Axis II table lists ASPD only as a co-occurring diagnosis in the BPD sample. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Anckarsater et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Semiz et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report that 65% of the men with antisocial personality disorder (APD) met ADHD diagnostic criteria, and the Conclusion describes a strong association among ADHD, childhood conduct disorder and APD. The paper also examines ADHD symptoms in APD. It does not establish a high rate of ADHD comorbidity or symptoms in borderline personality disorder (BPD); the Results mention BPD only as another diagnosis in some APD subjects. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In most studies involving BPD patients in which an emotional conflict must be suppressed, increased activity in amygdala or insula has been observed.

“Interestingly, in most studies involving patients with BPD in which an emotional conflict must be suppressed, increased activity in amygdala or insula (compared with controls) has been observed, indicating unresolved or heightened emotional conflict (Silbersweig et al., 2007; Krause-Utz et al., 2012; Holtmann et al., 2013; Jacob et al., 2013; Prehn et al., 2013)—but see Smoski et al. (2011).”

• cites Silbersweig et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Krause-Utz et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Holtmann et al., 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract and Discussion report increased right-amygdala activity during emotional interference in BPD patients in the difficult incongruent condition, a pattern not observed in controls. But the Results table does not report a significant BPD-versus-control amygdala difference for that interaction, so this paper does not fully support the sentence’s explicit ‘compared with controls’ claim. As one of several citations, it also cannot by itself establish what occurs in most studies. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Two relatively well-powered volumetric studies of BPD found smaller gray matter volume in rACC and lOFC.

“Nevertheless, two relatively well-powered volumetric studies of BPD (Soloff et al., 2008, 2012) found smaller gray matter volume in rACC and lOFC (Figures 8A,B).”

• cites Soloff et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (§3.1 and §3.3; page numbers unavailable) report reduced gray matter concentration in the anterior cingulate, including on the right, though the male-only finding did not extend to women. The Discussion (§4) explicitly says this study found no structural abnormalities in the orbitofrontal cortex, so it does not support attributing a smaller left orbitofrontal volume to Soloff et al. (2008). (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Soloff et al., 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The 2012 paper's Methods describe a volumetric study of 68 BPD subjects and 52 controls. Its Results (Structural analyses; page unavailable) report reduced gray matter concentration in the anterior cingulate for the full BPD group, but do not specify the right side. Orbitofrontal reduction is reported for BPD suicide attempters versus controls, not for the full BPD group, and the passage does not establish that it was left-sided. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Well-powered studies of BPD showed smaller gray matter volumes in rACC and lOFC.

“By contrast, well-powered studies of BPD (Soloff et al., 2008, 2012) showed smaller gray matter volumes in rACC and lOFC.”

• cites Soloff et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) reports reduced anterior-cingulate gray matter concentration in BPD men, but not women; it does not establish a general reduction in rACC volume. It explicitly says the study found no structural abnormalities in orbital frontal cortex, so the lOFC finding is not supported by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Soloff et al., 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Structural analyses; page unavailable) report reduced gray-matter concentration in the anterior cingulate among all BPD subjects versus controls, and in the orbitofrontal cortex among BPD suicide attempters versus controls. They do not establish the claimed right-anterior-cingulate and left-orbitofrontal pattern for BPD as a whole; the reported measure is gray-matter concentration rather than volume. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

lOFC represents aversive error-signals.

“These results are in line with findings that lOFC represents aversive error-signals (Seymour et al., 2005).”

• cites Seymour et al., 2005 sourceSupported

Top-down modulatory regions have shown opposite activations during specific attentional tasks, suggesting mutual active suppression.

“However, these top-down modulatory regions have shown opposite activations during specific attentional tasks (Simpson et al., 2000; Dolcos and McCarthy, 2006; Dolcos et al., 2011)—suggesting mutual active suppression.”

• cites Simpson et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dolcos and McCarthy, 2006 sourceSupported
• cites Dolcos et al., 2011 sourcePartly supported

  In “The impact of emotion on working memory and decision making” (page unavailable), the review reports increased activity in the emotional-processing system alongside decreased activity in the executive system during a working-memory task with emotional distractors. That supports opposite activation patterns in a specific task, but the passage does not establish that the regions actively suppress one another. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The PFC-BG-thalamus-PFC circuit is organized as parallel loops that are both segregated and integrated.

“The PFC-BG-thalamus-PFC circuit is organized as parallel loops that are both segregated and integrated (Graybiel, 2008; Haber and Knutson, 2010; Haber and Behrens, 2014).”

• cites Graybiel, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haber and Knutson, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haber and Behrens, 2014 sourceSupported

The PFC and ACC work in close connection with the BG and specific neuromodulatory systems, including the dopamine system, to accomplish cognitive computations such as choosing specific behavioral responses, learning reward associations and behaviors, and transforming new behaviors into habits.

“The PFC and ACC work in close connection with the BG and specific neuromodulatory systems, including the dopamine system, to accomplish cognitive computations such as choosing specific behavioral responses, learning reward associations and behaviors, and transforming new behaviors into habits (Graybiel, 2008; Haber and Knutson, 2010; Haber and Behrens, 2014).”

• cites Graybiel, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haber and Knutson, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haber and Behrens, 2014 sourceSupported

Some studies have found a stronger response to reward outcome either in striatum or in OFC in ADHD patients versus controls.

“At the same time, some studies have found a stronger response to reward outcome either in striatum (Furukawa et al., 2014; von Rhein et al., 2015) or in the OFC (Strohle et al., 2008) in ADHD patients vs. controls.”

• cites Furukawa et al., 2014 sourceSupported
• cites von Rhein et al., 2015 sourceSupported
• cites Strohle et al., 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A similar division between an emotional and a non-emotional dimension can be discerned in the dopamine system as for the prefrontal and BG circuits.

“A similar division between an “emotional” and a “non-emotional” dimension can also be discerned in the dopamine system as for the prefrontal and BG circuits (Williams and Goldman-Rakic, 1998; Björklund and Dunnett, 2007; Haber and Behrens, 2014; Figures 10A,B).”

• cites Williams and Goldman-Rakic, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Björklund and Dunnett, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haber and Behrens, 2014 sourceSupported

Initial studies have shown that emotional instability in CD is related to increased temporal discounting unrelated to ADHD.

“In line with this reasoning, initial studies have shown that emotional instability in CD is related to increased temporal discounting unrelated to ADHD (White et al., 2014).”

• cites White et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract reports greater temporal discounting in youths with conduct disorder, including those without comorbid ADHD; Results > Potential Confounds reports a significant group effect after excluding participants with ADHD. The paper does not establish that emotional instability is related to temporal discounting. Results > Symptom Severity and Behavioral Response in CD Youths found no association with the psychopathic-trait measures it tested. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The distinction between OFC/rACC (including vmPFC) and dlPFC/cACC is mirrored in the circuits linking PFC/ACC with BG.

“In line with this idea, the distinction between OFC/rACC (including vmPFC) and dlPFC/cACC is mirrored in the circuits linking PFC/ACC with BG (Graybiel, 2008; Haber and Knutson, 2010; Haber and Behrens, 2014).”

• cites Graybiel, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haber and Knutson, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Haber and Behrens, 2014 sourceSupported

Impulse control is not a simply unitary construct.

“However, impulse control is not a simply unitary construct (Robbins et al., 2012; Sebastian et al., 2014).”

• cites Robbins et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sebastian et al., 2014 sourceSupported

Non-emotional trait impulsivity in the general population is related to increased striatal activation in the reward anticipation phase, in contrast to hypoactivation in ADHD.

“In line with this, non-emotional trait impulsivity in the general population is related to increased striatal activation in the reward anticipation phase in contrast to hypoactivation in ADHD (Plichta and Scheres, 2014).”

• cites Plichta and Scheres, 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Background (page unavailable) reports a positive association between impulsivity-related traits and ventral-striatal response during reward anticipation in healthy people. Section 2 (page unavailable) reports relative ventral-striatal hypoactivation during reward anticipation in ADHD. The paper does not specifically establish the association for *non-emotional* impulsivity; it describes impulsivity as having cognitive, affective, and motor facets. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Functional imaging studies on humans support the model that ventral striatum signals reward prediction errors via dopamine.

“Functional imaging studies on humans support this model (O’Doherty et al., 2003, 2006; Pessiglione et al., 2006).”

• cites O’Doherty et al., 2003, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pessiglione et al., 2006 sourceSupported

Some regions such as rACC and cACC tend to correspond to distinct resting state networks that can exhibit anticorrelations during resting state scans.

“Moreover, some of these regions such as rACC and cACC tend to correspond to distinct resting state networks that can exhibit anticorrelations during resting state scans (Fox et al., 2005; Fransson, 2005).”

• cites Fox et al., 2005 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report two anticorrelated resting-state networks and identify medial prefrontal regions in the task-negative network and SMA/pre-SMA regions in the task-positive network. However, the paper does not identify rACC and cACC specifically as belonging to distinct networks, so that regional part of the claim is not established by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Fransson, 2005 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report two resting-state networks with inversely fluctuating BOLD signals and place the ventral anterior cingulate cortex in the network positively correlated with the precuneus/PCC. The Results and Tables II–IV do not identify rACC and cACC as members of distinct networks or show an anticorrelation specifically between those regions. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Information processing in the brain is highly dependent on complex reciprocal interactions between multiple regions in large-scale networks rather than isolated processes in specific regions.

“In summary, we have discussed that information processing in the brain is highly dependent on complex reciprocal interactions between multiple regions in large-scale networks (Mesulam, 1998, 2012; Engel et al., 2001; Dehaene and Changeux, 2011; Siegel et al., 2012) rather than isolated processes in specific regions (such as specific emotional and non-emotional regions).”

• cites Mesulam, 1998, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Engel et al., 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dehaene and Changeux, 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The global neuronal workspace proposal (section labeled “L. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, 1975; 205–223”; page unavailable) describes reciprocal connections among regions that share information across specialized processors. But it makes this point about conscious processing and also says nonconscious stimuli can be processed through specialized routes. It does not support the unqualified claim that brain information processing generally depends on large-scale interactions rather than region-specific processes. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Some structures may perform information processing that pertains both to emotional and non-emotional processes.

“Finally, some structures may perform information processing that pertains both to emotional and non-emotional processes (Shackman et al., 2011).”

• cites Shackman et al., 2011 sourceSupported

Each of the two putative emotional and non-emotional networks likely has a hierarchical perception-action organization, where the highest levels process more complex and temporally dispersed information.

“It is likely that each of these two putative networks has a hierarchical perception-action organization (Fuster, 2000, 2004; Fuster and Bressler, 2012), where the highest levels process more complex and temporally dispersed information.”

• cites Fuster, 2000, 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Fuster and Bressler, 2012 sourcePartly supported

  In “The Cognit” (page unavailable), the paper describes hierarchical perceptual and executive cognits, with more complex cognits in higher cortical areas. It also links high-level cognits to complex goals and working-memory integration across time. It does not establish that each of two emotional and non-emotional networks has this organization; those are not the two hierarchies it identifies. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cognitive core process capacities vary in the population from extremely efficient to extremely inefficient, depending on underlying genetic composition, learning history and state variables.

“From an information-processing viewpoint, cognitive core process capacities vary in the population from extremely efficient to extremely inefficient, depending on underlying genetic composition, learning history and state variables.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Cognitive core process capacities vary in the population from extremely efficient to extremely inefficient, depending on underlying genetic composition, learning history and state variables.

A measurement better reflecting actual emotional regulation was more tightly coupled to lOFC/vlPFC than dlPFC.

“Thus a measurement better reflecting actual emotional regulation was more tightly coupled to lOFC/vlPFC than dlPFC.”

Conditions involving emotional instability such as borderline and antisocial personality disorder are closer to the emotional end of the gradient.

“While ADHD has been classically linked primarily to the former, conditions involving emotional instability such as borderline and antisocial personality disorder are closer to the other.”

In this model, emotional subtypes of ADHD are located at intermediate levels of the gradient.

“In this model, emotional subtypes of ADHD are located at intermediate levels of this gradient.”

Defining disorders categorically based on whether criteria cut-points are met increases heterogeneity.

“Another problem is that defining disorders categorically based on whether criteria cut-points are met increases heterogeneity.”

lOFC may have a role in disorders involving emotional dysregulation.

“This also suggests a possible role for this region in disorders involving emotional dysregulation.”

Top-down dysregulation constitutes a gradient extending from mostly non-emotional top-down control processes (cool executive functions) to mainly emotional regulatory processes (hot executive functions).

“We develop this idea and suggest that top-down dysregulation constitutes a gradient extending from mostly non-emotional top-down control processes (i.e., “cool” executive functions) to mainly emotional regulatory processes (including “hot” executive functions).”

Many psychiatric symptoms are continuously distributed in the general population.

“One problem is that many psychiatric symptoms are continuously distributed in the general population.”

rACC is important in implicit attentional regulation in the emotional domain (hot executive functions).

“Previously we have suggested the importance of rACC in implicit attentional regulation in the emotional domain (such as “hot” executive functions).”

This framework can integrate ADHD, emotional traits in ADHD, borderline and antisocial personality disorder into a related cluster of mental conditions.

“We propose that this framework can integrate ADHD, emotional traits in ADHD, borderline and antisocial personality disorder into a related cluster of mental conditions.”

Gradations in cool processing appear to be related to prefrontal dysfunction involving dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and caudal anterior cingulate cortex (cACC).

“Neuroanatomically, gradations in “cool” processing appear to be related to prefrontal dysfunction involving dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and caudal anterior cingulate cortex (cACC), while “hot” processing entails orbitofrontal cortex and rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC).”

Truncating the range of variation by applying arbitrary cut-points impedes an understanding of underlying mechanisms since it does not mirror the true relationship between symptom levels and neurocognitive levels.

“Truncating the range of variation by applying arbitrary cut-points impedes an understanding of underlying mechanisms since it does not mirror the true relationship between symptom levels and neurocognitive levels.”

A dimensional approach would better describe the existing phenotypes than categorical distinctions.

“Thus, a dimensional approach would better describe the existing phenotypes than categorical distinctions.”

rACC is involved in top-down regulation of pain and emotion.

“Studies on placebo analgesia (Petrovic et al., 2002; Wager et al., 2004, 2007; Zubieta et al., 2005; Bingel et al., 2006; Eippert et al., 2009; Wager and Atlas, 2015) and emotional placebo (Petrovic et al., 2005; Ellingsen et al., 2013) have also suggested the rACC is involved in top-down regulation of pain and emotion (see Figure 6A).”

• cites Petrovic et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wager et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zubieta et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Cognitive reappraisal tasks differ substantially from Stroop tasks.

“Cognitive reappraisal tasks differ substantially from Stroop tasks.”

There is specificity for lOFC in emotional regulation.

“Thus, as for rACC there seems to be specificity for lOFC in emotional regulation.”

This variation is often normally distributed, for example in executive functions.

“This variation is often normally distributed (Figure 1A), e.g., in executive functions (Zelazo et al., 2013).”

• cites Zelazo et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Hot processing entails orbitofrontal cortex and rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC).

“Neuroanatomically, gradations in “cool” processing appear to be related to prefrontal dysfunction involving dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and caudal anterior cingulate cortex (cACC), while “hot” processing entails orbitofrontal cortex and rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC).”

Theoretically, lOFC/vlPFC should be more specifically involved in emotional regulatory components of the task.

“Thus, theoretically the lOFC/vlPFC should be more specifically involved in emotional regulatory components of the task.”

These two systems could be divided according to whether they process non-emotional information related to the exteroceptive environment (associated with cool regulatory circuits) or emotional information related to the interoceptive environment (associated with hot regulatory circuits).

“Overall we suggest that these two systems could be divided according to whether they process non-emotional information related to the exteroceptive environment (associated with “cool” regulatory circuits) or emotional information related to the interoceptive environment (associated with “hot” regulatory circuits).”

The change of expectations in cognitive reappraisal and placebo involves assigning new values to emotional stimuli by OFC.

“The change of expectations in both paradigms involves assigning new values to emotional stimuli by OFC.”

Many OFC inputs are interoceptive.

“Although the OFC receives input from many sensory modalities and may be the most polymodal region in the cortex (Kringelbach and Rolls, 2004), it is notable that many OFC inputs are interoceptive.”

• cites Kringelbach and Rolls, 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Symptoms associated with both non-emotional dysregulation and emotional dysregulation can be found along a continuum-often normally distributed.

“As the cognitive core process capacity of these regulatory systems varies in the population, symptoms associated with both non-emotional dysregulation and emotional dysregulation can be found along a continuum—often normally distributed.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The cognitive core process capacity of these regulatory systems varies in the population and is often normally distributed.

BPD patients that dissociated were more prone to show greater emotional interference.

“Another recent study showed that BPD patients that dissociated were more prone to show greater emotional interference (Winter et al., 2015), although no differences were observed in rACC using a verbal emotional Stroop task.”

• cites Winter et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Many subjects with ADHD more often chose a smaller reward immediately than a larger reward later in time as compared to controls.

“These tests show that many subjects with ADHD more often chose a smaller reward immediately than a larger reward later in time as compared to controls.”

• cites Castellanos et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Thorell, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yu et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Some clinical states could better be described as extremes on this continuum than as categorically defined disorders.

“This suggests that some clinical states could therefore better be described as extremes on this continuum than as categorically defined disorders.”

An exploratory analysis found tentative evidence of larger gray matter volumes bilaterally in lOFC and rACC in the ADHD group than in healthy controls.

“An exploratory analysis also found tentative evidence of larger gray matter volumes bilaterally in lOFC and rACC in the ADHD group than in the healthy controls (Figure 9A).”

• cites Seidman et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Including tests on delay aversion and temporal discounting along with standard executive function tests reveals abnormalities in a large majority of ADHD patients.

“In line with this reasoning, including tests on delay aversion and temporal discounting along with standard executive function tests reveals abnormalities in a large majority of ADHD patients (Castellanos et al., 2006; Thorell, 2007; Yu et al., 2015).”

• cites Castellanos et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Thorell, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yu et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The effects of stimulant medications impact laboratory measures of executive function less than rated symptoms.

“Interestingly, the effects of stimulant medications impact laboratory measures of executive function less than rated symptoms (Coghill et al., 2014b; Baroni and Castellanos, 2015).”

• cites Coghill et al., 2014b sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Baroni and Castellanos, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The prevalence of BPD in a cohort of 81 patients with ADHD was 37%.

“while the prevalence of BPD in a cohort of 81 patients with ADHD was 37% (Anckarsater et al., 2006).”

• cites Anckarsater et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Expectation related processes in lOFC drive pain and emotion regulatory signals in rACC.

“Such expectation related processes in the lOFC have been suggested to drive pain and emotion regulatory signals in rACC and are in line with placebo-specific functional connectivity between these regions (Petrovic et al., 2010).”

• cites Petrovic et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

ADHD is genetically related to emotional instability disorders such as BPD.

“Moreover, ADHD is genetically related to emotional instability disorders such as BPD (Distel et al., 2011).”

• cites Distel et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

BPD patients were not able to recruit rACC when they needed to control for negative words.

“However, the BPD patients were not able to recruit rACC when they needed to control for negative words (see Figure 8C).”

• cites Wingenfeld et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The main effects of stimulant medications seem to be on subjective factors such as motivation.

“Rather, the main effects seem to be on subjective factors such as motivation.”

High concentration of opioid receptors in rACC relates to attentional mechanisms that can suppress pain processing.

“The high concentration of opioid receptors expressed in rACC (Vogt et al., 1993; Fields, 2004) has been hypothesized to relate to attentional mechanisms that can suppress pain processing (Petrovic et al., 2002), a suggestion that has received experimental support (Zubieta et al., 2005; Wager et al., 2007; Eippert et al., 2009).”

• cites Vogt et al., 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fields, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Petrovic et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

lOFC was specifically activated during placebo analgesia but not during opioid-induced analgesia.

“Interestingly, the lOFC was specifically activated during placebo analgesia but not during opioid-induced analgesia (Petrovic et al., 2002, 2010) suggesting that some cognitive mechanisms are important for the placebo effect but not for opioid-mediated analgesia.”

• cites Petrovic et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Petrovic et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

OFC has an important role in explicit emotional regulation such as cognitive reappraisal.

“Above we have suggested that OFC has an important role in explicit emotional regulation such as cognitive re-appraisal, in which subjects are asked to modulate the emotions associated with a picture (see above).”

In a reasonably large study on ADHD that specifically excluded patients with affective problems, somewhat smaller gray matter volumes were found in dlPFC and cACC as predicted.

“In a reasonably large study on ADHD that specifically excluded patients with affective problems (Seidman et al., 2011) somewhat smaller gray matter volumes were found in dlPFC and cACC as predicted.”

• cites Seidman et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

rACC is in a position to regulate emotion and pain processes using specific underlying neuromodulatory systems such as the opioid system.

“Thus, studies of the placebo effect suggest that rACC is in a position to regulate emotion and pain processes using specific underlying neuromodulatory systems such as the opioid system.”

rACC and neighboring vmPFC are specifically involved in emotional regulation of lower-level structures including amygdala, PAG and ventral striatum.

“In summary, converging lines of evidence (including research on emotional executive functions, placebo research and research on extinction of conditioned fear) suggest that rACC and neighboring vmPFC are specifically involved in emotional regulation of lower-level structures including amygdala, PAG and ventral striatum.”

Emotional traits in ADHD may influence information processing.

“—suggesting that emotional traits in ADHD may influence information processing.”

Altered reward processing and behavior is another important aspect of ADHD rather than only dysfunctional executive functions.

“Thus, they indicate that altered reward processing and behavior is another important aspect of ADHD rather than only dysfunctional executive functions.”

Phenomenological studies increasingly point to the profoundly impairing effects of emotional dysregulation among many adolescents and adults with ADHD.

“Along these lines, phenomenological studies increasingly point to the profoundly impairing effects of emotional dysregulation among many adolescents and adults with ADHD (Castellanos et al., 2006; Thorell, 2007; Yu et al., 2015).”

• cites Castellanos et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Thorell, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yu et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Activation in lOFC is believed to represent treatment expectation and related error-signal between treatment expectation and incoming nociceptive signal.

“Activation in lOFC is believed to represent treatment expectation and the related error-signal between treatment expectation and incoming nociceptive signal (Petrovic et al., 2010) in line with the idea that predictions about different outcomes drive the placebo response (Buchel et al., 2014).”

• cites Petrovic et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Buchel et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A study of cognitive reappraisal of script-driven emotional induction found lower activations in rACC during up- and down-regulation in BPD subjects compared to controls.

“A study of cognitive reappraisal of a script-driven emotional induction did not show differences in lOFC but found lower activations in rACC during up- and down-regulation in BPD subjects compared to controls (Lang et al., 2012).”

• cites Lang et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

rACC activation during placebo remained when controlling for non-emotional attentional aspects.

“Importantly, this activation remained when controlling for non-emotional attentional aspects of treatment either through interaction or correlation analyses (Petrovic et al., 2002, 2005).”

• cites Petrovic et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Petrovic et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Comorbidity among ADHD and CD is substantial.

“Comorbidity among ADHD and CD is substantial (Rubia, 2011).”

• cites Rubia, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Amygdala and ventral striatum form a tight network with cortical interoceptive structures.

“Thus, amygdala and ventral striatum form a tight network with cortical interoceptive structures.”

Impulsivity has been studied as a neurocognitive endophenotype marker across disorders.

“For example, impulsivity (measured with self-rating questionnaires or behavioral tests such as stop signal or go-no-go tests) has been studied as a neurocognitive endophenotype marker across disorders (Robbins et al., 2012).”

• cites Robbins et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Several subcortical regions are important for processing stimuli that are closely associated to the bodily state.

“Apart from insula and ACC, several subcortical regions are important for processing stimuli that are closely associated to the bodily state.”

Dopamine neurons are organized as tiers of nuclei from the ventral tegmental area to the substantia nigra.

“Dopamine neurons are organized as tiers of nuclei from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the substantia nigra.”

The decreased striatal BOLD signal in reward anticipation observed in ADHD may be associated with the abnormalities in delay aversion and temporal discounting often observed in ADHD.

“The decreased striatal BOLD signal in reward anticipation observed in ADHD may be associated with the abnormalities in delay aversion and temporal discounting that are often observed in ADHD (Castellanos et al., 2006; Thorell, 2007; Yu et al., 2015)—as all are related to processing of future rewards (vs. processing an immediate reward).”

• cites Castellanos et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Thorell, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yu et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The opposite picture emerges for gray matter volume in these regions in classical ADHD compared to BPD.

“Thus, the opposite picture emerges for gray matter volume in these regions in classical ADHD (where the affective component is small) compared to BPD.”

The common theme with all emotional processes is that they are directly or indirectly associated with interoceptive systems.

“The common theme with all “emotional” processes is that they are directly or indirectly associated with interoceptive systems.”

Threat and reward signals are dependent on amygdala and ventral striatum, subcortical regions that often are co-activated with insula and ACC.

“Such signals are dependent on amygdala and ventral striatum, sub-cortical regions that often are co-activated with insula and ACC (Paulus et al., 2005; Paulus and Stein, 2006; Kable and Glimcher, 2007; Milad and Quirk, 2012).”

• cites Paulus et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Paulus and Stein, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kable and Glimcher, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Initial studies show similar reward-processing results in BPD and ASPD as in ADHD.

“Few studies have investigated this issue in emotional instability disorders but initial studies show similar results in BPD and ASPD (Vollm et al., 2007).”

• cites Vollm et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Together with hypofunction during reward anticipation, the stronger response to reward outcome suggests that ADHD patients are more affected by immediate rewards than by future rewards.

“Together with hypofunction during reward anticipation, this suggests that ADHD patients are more affected by immediate rewards than by future rewards.”

Emotional dysregulation and non-emotional dysregulation may be inversely related to brain volume and activation patterns in prefrontal regulatory networks.

“The findings that emotional dysregulation and non-emotional dysregulation may be inversely related to brain volume and activation patterns in prefrontal regulatory networks suggest that both dimensions should be assessed simultaneously.”

These robust anti-phase patterns suggest interactions between emotional and non-emotional regulatory systems in general.

“Although such negative correlations cannot be interpreted as implying mutual inhibition, these robust anti-phase patterns do suggest interactions between emotional and non-emotional regulatory systems in general.”

Emotional states may be produced by top-down mechanisms that directly activate emotional processes in anterior insula and ACC.

“Apart from interoceptive signals from the body being re-represented to construct a subjective feeling state, emotional states may be produced by top-down mechanisms that directly activate emotional processes in anterior insula and ACC.”

The PFC-BG-thalamus-PFC system allows a degree of separation between reward processes, non-reward cognitive processes and motor processes.

“This allows a degree of separation between reward processes, non-reward cognitive processes and motor processes.”

Even in the same cognitive task, different components may fail in individuals with non-emotional dysregulation as compared to individuals with emotional dysregulation.

“Even in the same cognitive task, different components may fail in individuals with non-emotional dysregulation as compared to individuals with emotional dysregulation.”

Increased activity in anterior insula and ACC in empathy for pain overlaps with the activations induced by nociceptive signals associated with the experience of pain.

“For example, increased activity in anterior insula and ACC in empathy for pain overlaps with the activations induced by nociceptive signals associated with the experience of pain (Singer et al., 2004).”

• cites Singer et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The striatal reward anticipation dysfunction observed in ADHD patients must remain tentative because emotional instability traits have not been controlled for in most existing ADHD studies.

“Although a robust finding, the striatal reward anticipation dysfunction observed in ADHD patients must remain tentative as emotional instability traits have not been controlled for in most existing ADHD studies.”

The interoceptive signal progresses forward in the insula and is integrated with information from various sensory modalities and prefrontal input to form a meta-representation in the anterior insula.

“The interoceptive signal progresses forward in the insula and is integrated with information from various sensory modalities (via, for example, higher-order sensory regions, the temporal pole and the amygdala) and prefrontal input (including information from OFC) to form a “meta-representation” in the anterior insula.”

Delay aversion and temporal discounting processes involve error signals from dopamine neurons in the VTA.

“These processes involve error signals from dopamine neurons in the VTA (Haber and Knutson, 2010), also pointing towards dysfunction in the emotional domain.”

• cites Haber and Knutson, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Non-emotional trait impulsivity and ADHD symptoms appear to be dissociated in the general population in relation to reward processing.

“Thus, non-emotional trait impulsivity and ADHD symptoms appear to be dissociated in the general population in relation to reward processing.”

Initial studies suggest that hypoactivation of ventral striatum observed in reward anticipation is more expressed in inattentive ADHD compared to combined type ADHD in adults.

“Initial studies suggest that the hypoactivation of ventral striatum observed in reward anticipation is more expressed in inattentive ADHD compared to combined type ADHD in adults (Edel et al., 2013) suggesting that sub-categorization of ADHD may be important in understanding how future rewards are processed.”

• cites Edel et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There is a tight relation between bottom-up and top-down influences on emotional processes.

“Thus, there is a tight relation between bottom-up and top-down influences on emotional processes.”

The degree of subclinical ADHD symptoms correlates with striatal hypoactivity during reward anticipation in a non-clinical sample.

“Interestingly, even the degree of subclinical ADHD symptoms has been shown to correlate with striatal hypoactivity during reward anticipation in a non-clinical sample (Stark et al., 2011).”

• Also stated in: § Neuromodulatory Effects of Dopamine and Reward Processing · hedged

  “This would be in line with the finding that subclinical ADHD symptoms are also associated with lower striatal activation during reward anticipation (Stark et al., 2011).”

• cites Stark et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Signals from amygdala and ventral striatum may re-enter the interoceptive loop through proprioceptive feedback from behavior and autonomic responses related to fear and reward.

“Apart from a direct interaction with insula and ACC, signals from amygdala and ventral striatum may also re-enter the interoceptive loop through proprioceptive feedback from behavior and autonomic responses related to fear and reward.”

As the PFC-BG-thalamus-PFC loops interconnect, the different dimensions can interact with each other.

“As the loops interconnect, the different dimensions can also interact with each other, as is essential.”

A common underlying process related to impulse control capacity could underlie different disorders.

“This suggests that a common underlying process related to impulse control capacity could underlie different disorders.”

Top-down activated emotional processes may be indirectly associated to interoceptive systems through the activation of bodily responses and induction of peripheral perceptions, which in turn can provide interoceptive feedback to hot circuits.

“Top-down activated emotional processes may be also indirectly associated to interoceptive systems through the activation of bodily responses and induction of peripheral perceptions (e.g., through emotional expressions and autonomic responses), which in turn can provide interoceptive feedback to “hot” circuits (James, 1890; Damasio, 1993; Craig, 2002, 2009).”

• cites James, 1890Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Damasio, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Craig, 2002, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Exteroceptive signals may trigger conditioned responses in anterior insula and ACC.

“Similarly, exteroceptive signals may trigger conditioned responses in these systems.”

The dysregulatory capacities for emotional and non-emotional processes are not independent.

“However, these dysregulatory capacities are not independent.”

The processing of certain external inputs in amygdala and ventral striatum, including threats and rewards, may be viewed as highly associated to the interoceptive dimension.

“Therefore, the processing of certain external inputs in these structures, including threats and rewards, may be viewed as highly associated to the interoceptive dimension.”

The division between interoceptive and exteroceptive networks, including their specific top-down regulatory systems, fits with the observation that some individuals have problems relating more to a specific dimension of top-down control such as non-emotional regulation or emotional regulation.

“The division between interoceptive and exteroceptive networks, including their specific top-down regulatory systems, fits with the observation that some individuals have problems that relate more to a specific dimension of top-down control such as “non-emotional” regulation or “emotional” regulation.”

The division between an exteroceptive-focused network and an interoceptive-associated network suggests a demand for two different regulatory functions.

“The division between a network that is mostly focused on exteroceptive processes and a network that is associated with interoceptive processes (such as body states and the needs of the bodily functions related to survival) suggests a demand for two different regulatory functions as well.”

Both types of disorders can be described on a two-dimensional scale where poor capacity for non-emotional regulation but normal emotional regulation is associated with ADHD.

“It would therefore be possible to describe both types of disorders on a two dimensional scale where poor capacity for non-emotional regulation but normal (or at least not handicapping) emotional regulation would be associated with ADHD (Figure 11C).”

Initial studies suggest that methylphenidate also has an impact on emotional dysregulation behaviors in ASPD and CD as well as BPD.

“This idea is in line with initial studies, suggesting that methylphenidate also has an impact on emotional dysregulation behaviors in ASPD and CD (Kaplan et al., 1990; Brown et al., 1991; Klein et al., 1997; Connor et al., 2000) as well as BPD (Schulz et al., 1988; Golubchik et al., 2008; Prada et al., 2015; although see Schulz et al. (1988) for possible issue with schizotypal comorbidity).”

• cites Kaplan et al., 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Brown et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Klein et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There is a mechanistic relation between ADHD and emotional instability disorders such as BPD, ASPD and CD.

“Here, we have argued that there is a mechanistic relation between ADHD and emotional instability disorders such as BPD, ASPD and CD.”

Top-down regulatory capacities of the emotional and non-emotional systems vary in their efficiency among subjects in the general population.

“In the present article we have highlighted research suggesting that top-down regulatory capacities of the emotional and the non-emotional systems vary in their efficiency among subjects in the general population (Das et al., 2012; Petrovic et al., 2015).”

• cites Das et al., 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Petrovic et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

ADHD and emotional instability disorders such as BPD, ASPD and CD are mechanistically related in that they all involve similar dysfunctional top-down regulation of information processing.

“We have presented a model in which ADHD and emotional instability disorders (such as BPD, ASPD and CD) are mechanistically related in that they all involve similar dysfunctional top-down regulation of information processing.”