The tropical atlantic observing system

May combine two claims.

Rainfall in the Sahel has increased since the 1980s, but has not recovered to pre-drought levels.

“Rainfall in the Sahel has increased since the 1980s, but has not recovered to pre-drought levels (Nicholson et al., 2000;Dong and Sutton, 2015;Berntell et al., 2018).”

• cites Nicholson et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dong and Sutton, 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Figure S4 caption (page unavailable) compares a Sahel drought period with a later 'recent wetter period,' supporting an increase in rainfall. It says the observed 1951–1963 precipitation value is shown, but the text does not state whether recent rainfall remained below that pre-drought level. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Berntell et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes a drought in the 1970s and 1980s followed by rainfall recovery. The CRU observations section also reports wet conditions from 2000 onward. Neither passage establishes that rainfall remained below pre-drought levels. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The two record droughts of 2005 and 2010 were regarded as once-in-a-century climate extremes at the times of their occurrences and were linked to anomalous SSTs in the tropical Atlantic.

“The two record droughts of 2005 and 2010 were regarded as “once in a century” climate extremes at the times of their occurrences and were linked to anomalous SSTs in the tropical Atlantic (Figure 1; Marengo et al., 2008;Zeng et al., 2008;Lewis et al., 2011).”

• cites Marengo et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion and conclusions (section 6; page unavailable) describe the 2005 drought in southwestern Amazonia as possibly among the most severe in at least 100 years. The Introduction (section 1) links that drought to anomalously warm tropical North Atlantic SSTs. This 2008 paper does not address the 2010 drought, so it cannot support the claim about both events. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Zeng et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4 links the 2005 Amazon drought to tropical Atlantic SST anomalies. The paper does not address the 2010 drought or describe either event as “once in a century”; it calls the 2005 drought rare and reports near-record-low streamflows. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Lewis et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Amazon floods of 2009 and 2012 were the largest going back several decades and left hundreds of thousands homeless.

“At the other extreme, the Amazon floods of 2009 and 2012 were the largest going back several decades (Satyamurty et al., 2013;Filizola et al., 2014) and left hundreds of thousands homeless.”

• cites Satyamurty et al., 2013 sourceSupported
• cites Filizola et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

There is strong evidence linking decadal-multidecadal tropical Atlantic SST variability to hurricane activity, but the drivers of this SST variability are not well known.

“There is also strong evidence linking decadal-multidecadal tropical Atlantic SST variability to hurricane activity (Goldenberg et al., 2001;Latif et al., 2007;Balaguru et al., 2018), but the drivers of this SST variability are not well known (Yang, 1999;Chang et al., 2000;Tanimoto and Xie, 2002;Evan et al., 2011;Booth et al., 2012;Clement et al., 2015).”

• cites Goldenberg et al., 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Latif et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Balaguru et al., 2018 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The frequency of marine heatwaves has increased significantly in the tropical North Atlantic during the past 35 years and is expected to increase further in response to global warming.

“The frequency of marine heatwaves has increased significantly in the tropical North Atlantic during the past 35 years and is expected to increase further in response to global warming (Oliver et al., 2018).”

• cites Oliver et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (‘Marine heatwaves over the satellite record’; page unavailable) report a significant global increase in frequency over 1982–2016 and more moderate increases in the subtropical North Atlantic. The Abstract expects further increases in marine heatwave days under continued global warming. Our copy does not establish a significant frequency increase specifically in the tropical North Atlantic or predict further frequency increases specifically there. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Since 2011, there has been an increase in the abundance of Sargassum in the western tropical North Atlantic, often resulting in mass beaching events in the Caribbean and also in western Africa and Brazil.

“Since 2011, there has been an increase in the abundance of Sargassum in the western tropical North Atlantic, often resulting in mass “beaching” events in the Caribbean (Wang and Hu, 2017) and also in western Africa and Brazil.”

• cites Wang and Hu, 2017 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Contaminants from plastic debris may leach into seawater or be ingested by marine organisms, creating a new risk route.

“It has also been shown that contaminants from plastic debris may leach into seawater or be ingested by marine organisms (Romera-Castillo et al., 2018), creating a new risk route.”

• cites Romera-Castillo et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) says plastic additives can leach into surrounding water and that marine animals ingest plastic debris. It does not say that animals ingest contaminants from the plastic; the ingestion passage concerns plastic itself. The paper supports the leaching route, but not that specific ingestion route. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The AZM-ENSO relationship is strongest during negative AMV phases, when equatorial Atlantic SST variability is enhanced.

“The AZM-ENSO relationship is strongest during negative AMV phases (Martín-Rey et al., 2014;Polo et al., 2015a), when equatorial Atlantic SST variability is enhanced (Martín-Rey et al., 2018).”

• cites Martín-Rey et al., 2014 sourceSupported
• cites Polo et al., 2015aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Martín-Rey et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The strength of the TC cold-wake feedback depends on a storm's intensity and translation speed as well as the ocean heat content and salinity structure, which vary regionally and on seasonal to multidecadal timescales.

“The strength of the feedback depends on a storm's intensity and translation speed as well as the ocean heat content and salinity structure, which vary regionally and on seasonal to multidecadal timescales (Shay et al., 2000;Balaguru et al., 2012Balaguru et al., , 2015Balaguru et al., , 2018)).”

• cites Shay et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Balaguru et al., 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions and Discussion (page unavailable) state that salinity-stratified barrier layers reduce cyclone-induced sea-surface cooling and affect intensification; they also mention interannual-to-decadal variability in barrier-layer conditions. The Methods account for storm intensity and translation speed, but the paper does not establish the claimed dependence of feedback strength on those factors or document seasonal-to-multidecadal variation in ocean heat content and salinity structure. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Balaguru et al., 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes SST cooling as a negative feedback on TC intensity, and the Mixing Length Formulation (section 3; page unavailable) makes mixing depend on storm wind speed, translation speed, and ocean stratification. The Results and Discussion describe regional differences, and the Methods use temperature and salinity profiles, but the paper does not establish that the relevant ocean conditions vary on seasonal-to-multidecadal timescales. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The AZM impacts the Indian summer monsoon, altering the ENSO-ISM connection.

“The AZM impacts the Indian summer monsoon (ISM), altering the ENSO-ISM connection (Kucharski et al., 2007(Kucharski et al., , 2008;;Wang et al., 2009;Barimalala et al., 2012Barimalala et al., , 2013)).”

• cites Kucharski et al., 2007 sourcePartly supported

  The section “The role of tropical Atlantic SSTs” reports that Atlantic SST anomalies affect Indian monsoon circulation and reduce the anticorrelation between ENSO and Indian monsoon rainfall. The Discussion and conclusions likewise links south-equatorial Atlantic SST anomalies to a weakened ENSO–monsoon relationship. Neither passage identifies those anomalies specifically as the Atlantic Zonal Mode (AZM), so the AZM-specific attribution is not established by our copy. Page numbers were not supplied. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Wang et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Barimalala et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Climate models predict increases in wind shear in some portions of the Atlantic hurricane development region, which would act to decrease overall Atlantic storm activity.

“Climate models predict increases in wind shear in some portions of the Atlantic hurricane development region (Latif et al., 2007;Vecchi and Soden, 2007), which would, however, act to decrease overall Atlantic storm activity.”

• cites Latif et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Vecchi and Soden, 2007 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

In situ data are crucial for anchoring global efforts to develop a global climate observing system and to discriminate the imbalance in the Earth's radiation budget as the climate warms.

“In situ data are crucial for anchoring global efforts to develop a global climate observing system (Weatherhead et al., 2018) and discriminate the imbalance in the Earth's radiation budget as the climate warms (Kato et al., 2013).”

• cites Weatherhead et al., 2018 sourceSupported
• cites Kato et al., 2013 sourcePartly supported

  Section 7, “Comparison with surface observations” (page not supplied), uses land-site and buoy measurements to evaluate estimated surface irradiances, supporting a role for in situ data. The Introduction discusses changes in the atmospheric energy budget, but the paper does not establish that in situ data discriminate an imbalance in Earth’s radiation budget as the climate warms. The separate observing-system clause is attributed to Weatherhead et al., not Kato et al. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Relatively little is known about the vertical structure and seasonality of the poleward Angola current, though data from recently deployed buoys are beginning to shed light on it.

“Relatively little is known about the vertical structure and seasonality of the poleward Angola current (Tchipalanga et al., 2018), though data from recently deployed buoys in the region are beginning to shed some light on this (Kopte et al., 2017).”

• cites Tchipalanga et al., 2018 sourceSupported
• cites Kopte et al., 2017 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Because of the large spatial extent of shortwave-absorbing aerosols, they are capable of influencing the interhemispheric energy balance, the location of the ITCZ, and regional precipitation patterns.

“Because of the large spatial extent of the shortwave-absorbing aerosols, they are capable of influencing the interhemispheric energy balance, the location of the ITCZ, and regional precipitation patterns (Jones et al., 2009;Randles and Ramaswamy, 2010;Sakaeda et al., 2011).”

• cites Jones et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Randles and Ramaswamy, 2010 sourcePartly supported

  The Results section (page not provided) reports that absorbing biomass-burning aerosols alter circulation and increase precipitation over parts of southern Africa, supporting the regional-precipitation part of the claim. The paper does not establish effects on the interhemispheric energy balance or the location of the ITCZ; searches for those terms found no relevant passage. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Sakaeda et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Positive dust and cloud feedbacks on SST and climate have been established at interannual and decadal timescales in both hemispheres and are capable of amplifying the AMV.

“Positive dust and cloud feedbacks on SST and climate have been established at interannual and decadal timescales in both hemispheres (Evan et al., 2011;Bellomo et al., 2015;Myers et al., 2018) and are capable of amplifying the AMV (Bellomo et al., 2016;Yuan et al., 2016).”

• cites Evan et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bellomo et al., 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Summary (page unavailable) reports that positive low-level cloud feedback over the Namibian region enhances simulated Atlantic Niño variability, supporting the cloud-feedback part of the first clause. It does not establish positive dust feedbacks or cloud feedbacks at both interannual and decadal timescales in both hemispheres; the Introduction says the relationship between North and South Atlantic variability remains unclear. The sentence cites other papers, not Bellomo et al. (2015), for the separate AMV-amplification clause. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Myers et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

While most prediction models drop well below an anomaly correlation coefficient of 0.55 by lead month 3, some promising systems show skill in predicting the AZM in summer when initialized on May 1.

“While most prediction models drop well below that by lead month 3 (Richter et al., 2017), some promising systems show skill in predicting the AZM in summer when initialized on May 1 (Prodhomme et al., 2016).”

• cites Richter et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Prodhomme et al., 2016 sourcePartly supported

  The Bias and Bias Correction section describes June–August forecasts initialized in May, matching the timing attributed to this source. But the copy does not report skill in predicting the AZM; the Conclusions instead discuss deteriorated tropical Atlantic SST skill in the higher-resolution runs. The lead-month-3 comparison is attached to Richter et al., not this citation. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The equatorial westerly wind bias may be linked to the erroneous southward shift in the Atlantic ITCZ, also present in atmosphere-only simulations, and to misrepresentation of convective momentum transport in the lower troposphere.

“It may be linked to the erroneous southward shift in the Atlantic ITCZ, which is also present in atmosphere-only simulations (Figure 9B; Richter et al., 2014b), and the misrepresentation of convective momentum transport in the lower troposphere (Zermeño-Diaz and Zhang, 2013;Richter et al., 2014b).”

• cites Richter et al., 2014bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zermeño-Diaz and Zhang, 2013 sourcePartly supported

  Section 5 (Momentum entrainment; page not available) links the westerly bias to insufficient downward transport of easterly momentum from the lower troposphere into the boundary layer. It does not identify that transport specifically as convective momentum transport. The ITCZ-shift clause is separately cited to Richter et al. (2014b), so it is not assessed against this source. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

There are two main causes of model errors in the Benguela region: equatorial biases and errors in local winds, especially the Benguela Jet and the Benguela Current.

“There are two main causes of the model errors in this region: (1) equatorial biases (Rouault et al., 2007), and (2) errors in local winds, especially the Benguela Jet (Xu et al., 2014a;Koseki et al., 2018;Voldoire et al., 2019) and the Benguela Current (Grodsky et al., 2012a;Muñoz et al., 2012).”

• cites Rouault et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Xu et al., 2014aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Koseki et al., 2018 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Temperature and salinity errors were reduced by 5-10% in the upper 2000 m with an enhancement of Argo sampling in equatorial regions and by around 20-30% in the deep ocean due to the implementation of deep Argo.

“Temperature and salinity errors were reduced by 5-10% in the upper 2000 m with an enhancement of Argo sampling in equatorial regions and by around 20-30% in the deep ocean due to the implementation of deep Argo (Gasparin et al., 2019).”

• cites Gasparin et al., 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The 'Doubling Argo in the WBC and Along the Equator' section reports a 5–10% reduction in temperature and salinity error across the Atlantic in the upper 2,000 m. 'Implementing a Deep Argo Array' reports an average improvement of 20% below 2,000 m, not a 20–30% reduction; its 20–30% figure is the standard deviation across systems. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Mechanisms responsible for the other half of the multi-decadal oxygen decline are unclear and are likely related to changes in ventilation and circulation, though changes in biological activity cannot be ruled out.

“Mechanisms that are responsible for the other half are unclear and are likely related to changes in ventilation and circulation (Brandt et al., 2015;Oschlies et al., 2018), though changes in biological activity cannot be ruled out.”

• cites Brandt et al., 2015 sourcePartly supported

  Section 7 (Long-term variability in ETNA OMZ) says the driving mechanisms of observed deoxygenation remain uncertain and discusses circulation, mixing, and biogeochemical oxygen consumption. Section 9 (Summary and discussion) identifies circulation changes as a likely contributor to the regional decline. The paper does not attribute a specific ‘other half’ of the multidecadal decline to these mechanisms; its quantitative statement instead concerns an imbalance equal to about 10% of oxygen consumption. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Oschlies et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Acidification has been examined at the 6°S, 10°W moored pCO2 site, though the record is not long enough to detect any increase in CO2 or decrease in pH given the strong natural variability of CO2.

“Acidification has been examined at this site, though the record is not long enough to detect any increase in CO 2 (or decrease of pH) given the strong natural variability of CO 2 (Lefevre et al., 2016).”

• cites Lefevre et al., 2016 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Inside the eddies' cores, oxygen consumption can be an order of magnitude higher than the average values for the North Atlantic, and the downward flux of organic matter exceeds typical values found in the open ocean.

“Inside the eddies' cores, oxygen consumption can be an order of magnitude higher than the average values for the North Atlantic, and the downward flux of organic matter exceeds typical values found in the open ocean (Fiedler et al., 2016).”

• cites Fiedler et al., 2016 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Even when the CMIP surface radiative forcing is correct, the cloud cover is still typically too low, likely due to an underestimation of optically thin stratiform clouds.

“Even when the CMIP surface radiative forcing is correct, the cloud cover is still typically too low (de Szoeke et al., 2012), likely due to an underestimation of optically thin stratiform clouds (Nam et al., 2012;Zuidema et al., 2012;Delgadillo et al., 2018;Wood et al., 2018).”

• cites de Szoeke et al., 2012 sourceCould not verify

  The supplied copy’s Introduction, Model and experiments, and Conclusions and discussion sections concern Atlantic overturning circulation, not stratocumulus clouds. Searches for low cloud cover despite correct surface radiative forcing and for eastern Pacific stratocumulus returned no relevant passage. The copy therefore cannot verify the part attributed to de Szoeke et al.; the optically thin cloud explanation is cited to other works. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Nam et al., 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusion and Discussion (§6, paragraph 20; page unavailable) reports that CMIP5 models underestimate tropical low-cloud cover and overestimate low-cloud optical thickness. It does not identify an underestimation of optically thin stratiform clouds as the likely cause. The preceding statement about surface radiative forcing is cited to a different source, not Nam et al. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Zuidema et al., 2012 sourceCould not verify

  The Conclusions report that thin clouds were frequent in the observed southeast Pacific dataset. Section 5.4 discusses thin clouds missed by an instrument retrieval, not clouds underestimated by CMIP models. A search for model underestimation of optically thin stratiform clouds found no passage addressing the explanation attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Oxygen changes in the tropical North Atlantic during the past decade are most likely associated with changes in the eddy-driven zonal current bands at intermediate depths and a shoaling of the wind-driven thermocline circulation, but other processes may contribute.

“Oxygen changes in the tropical North Atlantic during the past decade are most likely associated with changes in the eddy-driven zonal current bands at intermediate depths and a shoaling of the wind-driven thermocline circulation, but other processes, such as variations in the intensity of the mesoscale eddy field, may contribute (Hahn et al., 2017).”

• cites Hahn et al., 2017 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Argo is a global array of autonomous floats that sample the upper 2000 m; floats drift at 1000 m and make profiles of temperature, salinity, and pressure typically every 10 days.

“Argo is a global array of autonomous floats that sample the upper 2000 m of the ocean (Jayne et al., 2017).The floats drift at a depth of 1000 m and make profiles of temperature, salinity, and pressure in the upper 2000 m typically every 10 days.”

• cites Jayne et al., 2017 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Since 2000, a mooring array has been maintained at 16N that includes velocity measurements covering the DWBC east of Guadeloupe and additional geostrophic moorings measuring the deep flow between the continental slope and the mid-Atlantic ridge.

“Since 2000, a mooring array has been maintained at 16 • N that includes velocity measurements covering the DWBC east of Guadeloupe and additional geostrophic moorings measuring the deep flow between the continental slope and the mid-Atlantic ridge (Send et al., 2011;Frajka-Williams et al., 2018).”

• cites Send et al., 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The Observations section describes a nearly 10-year continuous MOVE mooring record at 16°N, with current-meter measurements near the continental slope and geostrophic measurements across a 1000 km section. The Figure 1 caption places the moorings between the coast and Mid-Atlantic Ridge and depicts the deep western boundary current. Our copy does not explicitly establish the exact start year of 2000 or locate the boundary-current measurements east of Guadeloupe; page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Frajka-Williams et al., 2018 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Since 2008, PIRATA moorings at 4N,23W and 12N,23W have measured dissolved oxygen at 300 and 500 m to monitor the OMZ; O2 sensors were recently added at 20.5N,23W.

“Since 2008, the moorings at 4 • N, 23 • W and 12 • N, 23 • W have measured dissolved oxygen (O 2 ) at depths of 300 and 500 m in order to monitor the OMZ.O 2 sensors were recently added at 20.5 • N, 23 • W (Bourlès et al., 2019).”

• cites Bourlès et al., 2019 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 states that oxygen sensors were installed in 2008 at 4°N, 23°W and 12°N, 23°W at 300 and 500 m to monitor the OMZ. It also reports additional oxygen sensors at 21°N, 23°W, but does not give the claimed location of 20.5°N, 23°W. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Currently, there are three SOOP transects in the tropical Atlantic, each repeated approximately every 3 months; XBTs are deployed 10 to 35 km apart to measure temperature in the upper 760 m.

“Currently, there are three transects in the tropical Atlantic, each repeated approximately every 3 months (Figure 10).XBTs are deployed 10 to 35 km apart to measure temperature in the upper 760 m, from which mesoscale eddy variability and the larger-scale ocean circulation can be deduced (Goes et al., 2013).”

• cites Goes et al., 2013 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1, paragraph [7] describes one tropical Atlantic XBT transect, AX08, with about four realizations per year, an average 25 km spacing between casts in the tropics, and probes with a nominal depth range of 760 m. It does not establish that there are three transects or that casts across them are spaced 10–35 km apart. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

At the equator, several subsurface ADCP moorings are maintained as part of PIRATA, measuring currents typically from about 30 to 300 m.

“At the equator, several subsurface acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) moorings are maintained as part of PIRATA (Bourlès et al., 2019).They measure currents typically from depths of about 30 to 300 m.”

• cites Bourlès et al., 2019 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PIRATA was initiated in 1997 and now consists of 18 moorings spanning the tropical Atlantic basin.

“It was initiated in 1997 and now consists of 18 moorings spanning the basin.”

• cites Bourlès et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract states that PIRATA implementation began in 1997 and describes a buoy network in the tropical Atlantic. The ATLAS BUOYS section lists five western backbone, five eastern backbone, three Southwest Extension, and four Northeast Extension buoys—17 in total. The PIRATA EXPANSIONS section describes a separate Southeast pilot mooring that ended in June 2007, so the paper does not support 18 as the current mooring count. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Bourlès et al., 2019 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

BGC parameters are currently measured by 329 Argo floats globally, of which 22 are in the tropical Atlantic; measured parameters include oxygen, chlorophyll-a, suspended particles, nitrate, pH, and downwelling irradiance.

“Profiles of biogeochemical (BGC) parameters are currently made by 329 Argo floats in the global ocean, of which 22 are in the tropical Atlantic (Figure 2B).The measured parameters include oxygen, chlorophyll-a, suspended particles, nitrate, pH, and downwelling irradiance.”

• cites Gruber et al., 2010 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says Argo floats measure dissolved oxygen. Section 6.1 reports more than 200 oxygen-equipped floats deployed and 160 reporting data during a 20-day period in May 2009. The paper does not substantiate the claimed 329 BGC floats, 22 in the tropical Atlantic, or the full list of measured parameters; its figures describe a different time and subset of floats. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Much of the present observing system was designed before coupled model biases emerged as a scientific research priority; as a result, efforts to alleviate model biases are hampered by inadequate in situ measurements.

“Much of the present observing system was designed before coupled model biases emerged as a scientific research priority.As a result, efforts to alleviate model biases are hampered by inadequate in situ measurements (Tchipalanga et al., 2018).”

• cites Tchipalanga et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  In “History of Physical Oceanography in Angola” (page unavailable), the paper says a lack of observations prevents satisfactory evaluation of model simulations along the Angolan margin. Its “Summary and Discussion” (page unavailable) links better observations and process understanding to reducing model biases. It does not say that the observing system was designed before coupled-model biases became a research priority, and its discussion is regional rather than a claim about much of the present observing system. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Coupled ocean-atmosphere data assimilation is in its infancy.

“Coupled ocean-atmosphere data assimilation, a promising approach to improve oceanic and atmospheric analyses and coupled model forecasts, is in its infancy (Zhang et al., 2007;Lu et al., 2015).”

• cites Zhang et al., 2007 sourcePartly supported

  The introduction (page unavailable) describes this study as a first step in applying and validating its coupled data-assimilation system, with only a preliminary evaluation. That supports an early-stage characterization of this system, but the paper does not say that coupled ocean–atmosphere data assimilation as a field is in its infancy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Lu et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The tropical Atlantic observing system has progressed substantially over the past 20 years, yet many challenges remain.

“The tropical Atlantic observing system has progressed substantially over the past 20 years (Figure 2), yet many challenges remain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most deployments of drifters are conducted from the XBT line AX8, from research vessels servicing PIRATA, and from Brazilian Navy vessels.

“Most deployments are conducted from the expendable bathythermograph (XBT) line AX8, which runs from Cape Town to the U.S. east coast, from research vessels servicing PIRATA, and from Brazilian Navy vessels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Since 2005, drifter measurements in the tropical Atlantic have been approximately hourly.

“1998, the array in the tropical Atlantic has averaged 92 drifters, and since 2005 drifter measurements have been approximately hourly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Since 2005, there have been eight Atlantic hurricanes that have resulted in at least $25 billion in damages, including Harvey, Irma, and Maria in 2017 and Florence in 2018.

“Since 2005, there have been eight Atlantic hurricanes that have resulted in at least $25 billion in damages, including Harvey, Irma, and Maria in 2017 and Florence in 2018 2,3 .”

May combine two claims.

Present-day observations and models show that the ocean sink has increased along with CO2 emissions and is currently absorbing about 28% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions annually.

“Present-day observations and models show that the ocean sink has increased along with CO 2 emissions and is currently absorbing about 28% of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions annually (Le Quéré et al., 2018).”

• cites Le Quéré et al., 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Short-term predictions and longer decadal and century-scale projections of the tropical Atlantic are made more challenging by persistent biases in climate models that have seen little progress over the past two decades.

“Short-term predictions and longer decadal and century-scale projections of the tropical Atlantic are made more challenging by persistent biases in climate models that have seen little progress over the past two decades.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Tropical Atlantic conditions are driven by complex interactions between the ocean, atmosphere, and land, and between other ocean basins and the tropical Atlantic.

“These conditions are driven by complex interactions between the ocean, atmosphere, and land, and between other ocean basins and the tropical Atlantic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Tropical Atlantic variability influences a wide range of societally important phenomena on different timescales that span the physical, biogeochemical, and ecological systems and their interactions.

“Tropical Atlantic variability (TAV) influences a wide range of societally important phenomena on different timescales that span the physical, biogeochemical, and ecological systems and their interactions.”

May combine two claims.

The West African monsoon onset is typically in late June or early July and it ends normally from late September to October.

“Its onset is typically in late June or early July and it ends normally from late September to October (Sultan and Janicot, 2003).”

• cites Sultan and Janicot, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There is stronger interannual variability at the Guinea Coast compared to the Sahel, and rainfall anomalies often extend zonally across West Africa, affecting large populations.

“There is stronger interannual variability at the Guinea Coast compared to the Sahel, and rainfall anomalies often extend zonally across West Africa (Giannini et al., 2005), affecting large populations.”

• cites Giannini et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

There has been significant decadal-multidecadal variability of TC activity in the Atlantic, with above-normal activity during the 1940s and 50s, below-normal from the 60s to the early 90s, and above-normal since the mid-90s.

“There has also been significant decadal-multidecadal variability of TC activity in the Atlantic, with above-normal activity during the 1940s and 50s, belownormal from the 60s to the early 90s, and above-normal since the mid-90s (Goldenberg et al., 2001).”

• cites Goldenberg et al., 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Rainfall in South America and West Africa and Atlantic hurricanes are highly sensitive to conditions in the tropical Atlantic.

“Rainfall in South America and West Africa and Atlantic hurricanes are highly sensitive to conditions in the tropical Atlantic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Prior to the recent drought period, Northeast Brazil experienced a severe flood in 2009 that has been linked to anomalous SSTs in the tropical Atlantic.

“Prior to the recent drought period, Northeast Brazil experienced a severe flood in 2009 that has been linked to anomalous SSTs in the tropical Atlantic (Foltz et al., 2012).”

• cites Foltz et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Strong and societally relevant variability occurs on seasonal to multidecadal timescales in the tropical Atlantic.

“Strong and societally relevant variability occurs on seasonal to multidecadal timescales.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The tropical Atlantic is home to multiple coupled climate variations covering a wide range of timescales and impacting societally relevant phenomena such as continental rainfall, Atlantic hurricane activity, oceanic biological productivity, and atmospheric circulation in the equatorial Pacific.

“The tropical Atlantic is home to multiple coupled climate variations covering a wide range of timescales and impacting societally relevant phenomena such as continental rainfall, Atlantic hurricane activity, oceanic biological productivity, and atmospheric circulation in the equatorial Pacific.”

May combine two claims.

The tropical Atlantic includes two major eastern boundary upwelling systems that support some of the world's most productive fisheries: the Canary and the Benguela.

“The tropical Atlantic includes two major eastern boundary upwelling systems that support some of the world's most productive fisheries: the Canary and the Benguela (Chaigneau et al., 2009).”

• cites Chaigneau et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The tropical Atlantic receives about 25% of the global riverine freshwater discharge from three large rivers (Amazon, Congo, and Orinoco).

“The tropical Atlantic receives about 25% of the global riverine freshwater discharge from three large rivers (Amazon, Congo, and Orinoco; Dai and Trenberth, 2002).”

• cites Dai and Trenberth, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Theory and numerical models predict that as SST rises, the maximum potential intensity that storms can reach will increase, enabling more powerful hurricanes.

“Theory and numerical models predict that as SST rises, the maximum potential intensity that storms can reach will increase, enabling more powerful hurricanes (Emanuel, 1999;Elsner et al., 2008).”

• cites Emanuel, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Elsner et al., 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Uptake of anthropogenic CO2 by the ocean regulates atmospheric CO2 concentration but also leads to ocean acidification, with significant but poorly understood consequences for marine organisms and ecosystems.

“While uptake of anthropogenic CO 2 by the ocean regulates the atmospheric CO 2 concentration, it also leads to ocean acidification, with significant but poorly understood consequences for marine organisms and ecosystems (Feely et al., 2004;Bates, 2007).”

• cites Feely et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bates, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A positive AMM favors an earlier migration of the ITCZ northward during April-May, shortening the rainfall season over the Amazon region and Brazilian Northeast and leading to severe droughts over the Northeast.

“A positive AMM favors an earlier migration of the ITCZ northward during April-May, shortening the rainfall season over the Amazon region and Brazilian Northeast and leading to severe droughts over the Northeast (Figures 4B,C; Nobre and Shukla, 1996;Hastenrath, 2006;Kucharski et al., 2008;Liebmann and Mechoso, 2011;Rodrigues et al., 2011).”

• cites Nobre and Shukla, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hastenrath, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kucharski et al., 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The frequency of extreme El Niño and La Niña events is likely to increase, which will affect the tropical North Atlantic ocean-atmosphere system.

“The frequency of extreme El Niño and La Niña events is likely to increase (Cai et al., 2014(Cai et al., , 2015a,b,b), which will affect the tropical North Atlantic ocean-atmosphere system.”

• cites Cai et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cai et al., 2015a,bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Satellites cannot retrieve variables a few meters above the sea surface and instead rely on empirically derived algorithms applied to total-column water vapor or precipitable water.

“This is mainly because satellites cannot retrieve the variables a few meters above the sea surface and instead rely on empirically derived algorithms applied to total-column water vapor or precipitable water (Liu et al., 1991).”

• cites Liu et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These dead-zone events act to intensify the OMZ in the upper 200 m and have severe direct impacts on the local ecosystem.

“These events act to intensify the OMZ in the upper 200 m and have severe direct impacts on the local ecosystem (Schütte et al., 2016b).”

• cites Schütte et al., 2016bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The eastern tropical Atlantic on both sides of the equator is occupied by OMZs, which result from sluggish ventilated shadow zones situated equatorward of the subtropical gyres.

“The eastern tropical Atlantic on both sides of the equator is occupied by OMZs, which result from sluggish ventilated shadow zones (Luyten et al., 1983) situated equatorward of the subtropical gyres.”

• cites Luyten et al., 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Coupled model simulations indicate a general warming in the tropical Atlantic, with reduced seasonal cycle and interannual variability, in response to an AMOC weakening.

“Coupled model simulations indicate a general warming in the tropical Atlantic, with reduced seasonal cycle and interannual variability, in response to an AMOC weakening (Chang et al., 2008).”

• cites Chang et al., 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These waves significantly contribute to the upper-ocean heat and freshwater budgets through their influence on horizontal and vertical mixing and provide energy to EDJs via downward propagating Yanai beams.

“These waves significantly contribute to the upper-ocean heat and freshwater budgets through their influence on horizontal and vertical mixing (Foltz et al., 2003;Jochum et al., 2004;Hummels et al., 2013) and provide energy to EDJs via downward propagating Yanai beams (Tuchen et al., 2018).”

• cites Foltz et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jochum et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hummels et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Eddies are generated in the eastern side of the basin connecting the eastern boundary upwelling systems with the open oceans, transporting oxygen-poor and nutrient-rich waters into the oligotrophic ocean and impacting the mean state.

“Eddies are generated in the eastern side of the basin connecting the eastern boundary upwelling systems with the open oceans, transporting oxygenpoor and nutrient-rich waters into the oligotrophic ocean and impacting the mean state (Schütte et al., 2016a,b).”

• cites Schütte et al., 2016a,bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The AMOC and STCs are basin-wide and regional circulations that are influenced by and interact with the circulation in the tropical Atlantic and affect tropical Atlantic climate and extreme weather.

“The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and subtropical cells (STCs) are examples of basin-wide and regional circulations, respectively, that are influenced by and interact with the circulation in the tropical Atlantic and affect tropical Atlantic climate and extreme weather (Zhang et al., 2003;Knight et al., 2005;Zhang and Delworth, 2006).”

• cites Zhang et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Knight et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhang and Delworth, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These coupled climate model biases have received much attention but seen little improvement.

“These biases have received much attention but seen little improvement (Davey et al., 2002;Richter and Xie, 2008;Richter et al., 2014b;Giarolla et al., 2015;Zuidema et al., 2016b).”

• cites Davey et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Richter and Xie, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Richter et al., 2014bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Upwelling in the Benguela region is driven by southerly winds associated with the Benguela low-level coastal jet, with oceanic currents and the location of the Angola-Benguela frontal zone sensitive to the jet's wind-stress curl.

“Upwelling is driven by southerly winds associated with the Benguela low-level coastal jet, with oceanic currents and the location of the Angola-Benguela frontal zone sensitive to the jet's wind-stress curl (Colberg and Reason, 2006;Fennel et al., 2012).”

• cites Colberg and Reason, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fennel et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Models typically produce too weak of a cold tongue that also appears too late in the year, while placing cool SST in the western equatorial Atlantic warm pool.

“Models typically produce too weak of a cold tongue that also appears too late in the year, while placing cool SST in the western equatorial Atlantic warm pool, defined as the area with SSTs above 28.5 • C.”

May combine two claims.

Another factor that may contribute to the cold tongue bias is insufficient representation of the oceanic thermocline, which may be related to deficiencies in vertical mixing parameterizations.

“Another factor that may contribute to the cold tongue bias is insufficient representation of the oceanic thermocline (Hazeleger and Haarsma, 2005;Xu et al., 2014b), which may be related to deficiencies in vertical mixing parameterizations.”

• cites Hazeleger and Haarsma, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Xu et al., 2014bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The warm SST bias in the Benguela coastal upwelling region is more severe than that at the equator, exceeding 2.5°C in the multi-model average of AOGCMs from CMIP5.

“The warm SST bias in the Benguela coastal upwelling region (Figure 9) is more severe than that at the equator, exceeding 2.5 • C in the multi-model average of atmosphereocean general circulation models (AOGCMs) from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5; Toniazzo and Woolnough, 2014;Richter, 2015;Zuidema et al., 2016a).”

• cites Toniazzo and Woolnough, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Richter, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zuidema et al., 2016aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

This introduces a positive feedback: the warmer ocean surface reduces the lower tropospheric stability that maintains the low cloud deck, further reducing the low cloud cover.

“This introduces a positive feedback: the warmer ocean surface reduces the lower tropospheric stability that maintains the low cloud deck (Klein and Hartmann, 1993;Huang et al., 2007;Hu et al., 2008), further reducing the low cloud cover.”

• cites Klein and Hartmann, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Huang et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hu et al., 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The present tropical mooring array provides invaluable time series for evaluation of models and assimilation systems, with the latter primarily impacted in the region of the moorings.

“The present tropical mooring array provides invaluable time series for evaluation of models and assimilation systems, the latter being primarily impacted in the region of the moorings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Measurements of temperature and salinity in the deep ocean and surface atmospheric pressure appear to be top priorities for improving operational data assimilation and ocean state estimates.

“Measurements of temperature and salinity in the deep ocean and surface atmospheric pressure appear to be top priorities for improving operational data assimilation and ocean state estimates.”

May combine two claims.

The atmospheric component of the coupled models is the primary culprit for the Southeast Atlantic warm SST bias, with the ocean playing a vital but secondary role.

“This suggests the atmospheric component of the coupled models is the primary culprit (Lauer and Hamilton, 2013), with the ocean playing a vital but secondary role (Richter, 2015).”

• cites Lauer and Hamilton, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Richter, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In many regions of the tropical Atlantic, the rate at which pH is declining, its causes, and its impacts on CaCO3 shell-forming species are not well known.

“In many regions of the tropical Atlantic, the rate at which pH is declining, its causes, and its impacts on CaCO 3 shell-forming species are not well known.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The high temporal sampling rates of moorings are not exploited in most current assimilation systems, and the mooring impact could potentially be larger with better adapted and more advanced assimilation systems.

“The high temporal sampling rates of moorings are not exploited in most current assimilation systems, and the mooring impact could potentially be larger with better adapted and more advanced assimilation systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fish stock assessment models have developed quantitative methods to optimize the population dynamics parameters of exploited species based mainly on catch and fishing effort data, and in some cases tagging data.

“Fish stock assessment models have developed quantitative methods to optimize the population dynamics parameters of exploited species based mainly on catch and fishing effort data, and in some cases tagging data (Maunder and Punt, 2013).”

• cites Maunder and Punt, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

OMZs are expected to strengthen the biological carbon pump, as surface-produced organic matter is better preserved due to oxygen deficiency.

“OMZs are expected to strengthen the biological carbon pump, as surface-produced OM is better preserved due to oxygen deficiency.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There have been some successful attempts to assimilate microwave data from SMOS, Aquarius, and SMAP satellites to correct SSS.

“There have been some successful attempts to assimilate microwave data from the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS), Aquarius, and Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) satellites to correct SSS (Martin, 2016).”

• cites Martin, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A single mooring at 11S,13E has been recording since 2013, showing a weak and highly variable southward flow of the Angola Current.

“The mooring consists of an ADCP covering the upper 500 m at 11 • S, 13 • E and has been recording data since 2013, showing a weak and highly variable southward flow of the Angola Current (Kopte et al., 2018).”

• cites Kopte et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Precipitation at the ocean's surface is retrieved from variables highly correlated with rainfall, including infrared and microwave brightness temperature, and visible and near-infrared albedo.

“Precipitation at the ocean's surface is retrieved from variables that are highly correlated with rainfall, including infrared and microwave brightness temperature, as well as visible and nearinfrared albedo.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PIRATA has supported biogeochemical measurements: since 2006 at 6S,10W and since 2008 at 8N,38W, CARIOCA sensors have measured fCO2 at about 1 m; in 2017 a new CARIOCA sensor was implemented at 6S,8E.

“Since 2006 at 6 • S, 10 • W and since 2008 at 8 • N, 38 • W, CO 2 Carbon Interface Ocean Atmosphere (CARIOCA) sensors have been measuring the fugacity of CO 2 (fCO 2 ) at a depth of about 1 m.In 2017, a new CARIOCA sensor was implemented at 6 • S, 8 • E.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

GO-SHIP conducts high-quality, full-depth measurements in the global ocean approximately once per decade, measuring many physical, chemical, and biological variables including heat, freshwater, carbon, oxygen, nutrients, and transient tracers.

“The Global Ocean Ship-based Hydrographic Investigations Program (GO-SHIP) conducts high-quality, full-depth measurements in the global ocean approximately once per decade (Figure 10).The measurements have high spatial and vertical resolutions and measure many different physical, chemical, and biological variables, including heat, freshwater, carbon, oxygen, nutrients and transient tracers.”

May combine two claims.

In situ data are critical for validating and calibrating satellite retrievals, and satellite data are useful for filling temporal gaps in mooring surface data and for providing information to fill large spatial gaps between moorings and other in situ surface measurements.

“In situ data are critical for validating and calibrating satellite retrievals, and satellite data are useful for filling temporal gaps in mooring surface data and for providing information to fill the large spatial gaps between moorings and other in situ surface measurements.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

All PIRATA moorings measure ocean temperature in the upper 500 m, salinity in the upper 120 m, and near-surface air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, rainfall, and incident shortwave radiation.

“All moorings measure ocean temperature in the upper 500 m, salinity in the upper 120 m, and near-surface air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, rainfall, and incident shortwave radiation.”

May combine two claims.

Near-surface air humidity and temperature cannot be retrieved directly by satellites; they are estimated from satellite-measured total column water vapor or total precipitable water using passive microwave radiometers.

“Near-surface air humidity and temperature cannot be retrieved directly by satellites.Instead, these variables are estimated from satellite-measured total column water vapor or total precipitable water (PW) (Liu, 1986;Liu et al., 1991) using passive microwave radiometers such as Special Sensor Microwave Imager and Sounder (SSM/I and SSMIS, respectively), AMSR-E, and AMSR-2.”

• cites Liu, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Liu et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Beginning in 2014, all PIRATA buoys have been equipped with acoustic receivers at a depth of 200 m as a contribution to the Ocean Tracking Network.

“Beginning in 2014, all buoys have been equipped with acoustic receivers at a depth of 200 m as a contribution to the Ocean Tracking Network (OTN 8 ).”

May combine two claims.

Moorings do not resolve well the equatorial waveguide, especially meridionally, or the southeastern tropical Atlantic, where there are large SST signals associated with Benguela Niños, model biases, and complex ocean-atmosphere interactions.

“Moorings also do not resolve well the equatorial waveguide, especially meridionally, or the southeastern tropical Atlantic, where there are large SST signals associated with Benguela Niños, model biases, and complex ocean-atmosphere interactions involving winds, currents, SST, clouds, and aerosols.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most satellites provide measurements in real-time or near real-time, and records for many parameters extend back at least 20 years.

“Most satellites provide measurements in real-time or near real-time, and the records for many parameters extend back at least 20 years.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Pollutants such as mercury and plastics can negatively impact ecosystems, and emerging contaminants such as gadolinium, silver, and platinum need close attention, as their fate, toxicity and distributions are not well known.

“Pollutants such as mercury and plastics can negatively impact ecosystems, and emerging contaminants such as gadolinium, silver, and platinum need close attention, as their fate, toxicity and distributions are not well known (Hatje et al., 2018;Henderson et al., 2018).”

• cites Hatje et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Henderson et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Moored surface buoys have even coarser horizontal and vertical resolutions than Argo, but uniquely make colocated high-temporal-resolution measurements of the upper ocean and near-surface atmosphere.

“Moored surface buoys have even coarser horizontal and vertical resolutions than Argo, but uniquely make colocated high-temporal-resolution measurements of the upper ocean and near-surface atmosphere.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2017 and 2018, full-depth CTD-O2-ADCP casts, along with water sample analyses of salinity, O2, pH, nutrients, and trace elements, were performed during western Atlantic PIRATA servicing cruises.

“In 2017 and 2018, full-depth CTD-O 2 -ADCP casts, along with water sample analyses of salinity, O 2 , pH, nutrients, and trace elements, were performed during the western Atlantic PIRATA servicing cruises.”

May combine two claims.

Equatorially forced waves propagate along the southwestern African coast, triggering substantial thermocline, halocline, and nutricline displacements and affecting the local marine ecosystems balance, while tropical nutrient-rich and low-oxygen water masses may occasionally penetrate southward over large distances along the coast.

“Equatorially forced waves propagate along the southwestern African coast, triggering substantial thermocline, halocline, and nutricline displacements and affecting the local marine ecosystems balance, while tropical nutrient-rich and low-oxygen water masses may occasionally penetrate southward over large distances along the coast.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A transition to next-generation T-Flex moorings began in 2015; currently 10 PIRATA buoys have been upgraded and the remaining eight will follow.

“A transition to the next-generation tropical flex moorings (T-Flex) began in 2015.Currently, 10 PIRATA buoys have been upgraded and the remaining eight will follow (Figure 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Multi-frequency transects collected during regular maintenance cruises of the PIRATA network since 2015 are a key piece of a growing acoustic network for estimating global biomass of micronekton.

“Multi-frequency transects collected during the regular maintenance cruises of the PIRATA network since 2015 are a key piece of a growing acoustic network for estimating the global biomass of micronekton, one of the less known components of the ocean ecosystem.”

May combine two claims.

In the tropical North Atlantic, PIRATA moorings are located in the central and eastern basin (east of 40W), where seasonal and interannual SST signals are largest, especially those associated with the AMM and AZM.

“In the tropical North Atlantic, PIRATA moorings are located in the central and eastern basin (east of 40 • W), where seasonal and interannual SST signals are largest, especially those associated with the AMM and AZM.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The vertical spacing of temperature sensors on PIRATA moorings varies, typically 5-20 m in the upper 40 m, with 20 m intervals down to 140 m and 40-200 m resolution between 140 and 500 m.

“The vertical spacing of temperature sensors varies between moorings and is typically 5-20 m in the upper 40 m, with 20 m intervals down to 140 m and 40-200 m resolution between 140 and 500 m.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Argo provides subsurface information, but at coarser horizontal resolution than satellites.

“In contrast, Argo provides subsurface information, but at coarser horizontal resolution than satellites.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

Several PIRATA moorings also measure downward longwave radiation, atmospheric pressure, and ocean currents at a depth of 10 m or 12 m.

“Several moorings also measure downward longwave radiation, atmospheric pressure, and ocean currents at a depth of 10 m or 12 m.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

By combining data from several satellites with in situ measurements, daily maps of SST at high spatial resolution (0.25° or better) are possible going back to 1997.

“By combining data from several satellites with in situ measurements, daily maps of SST at high spatial resolution (0.25 • or better) are possible going back to 1997, when microwave measurements started.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There are currently approximately 4000 Argo floats in the global ocean, and about 800 floats must be deployed each year to maintain the array.

“Measurements began in the early 2000's and there are currently approximately 4000 floats in the global ocean.About 800 floats must be deployed each year to maintain the array.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NTAS has been operational since 2001 and measures the same parameters as PIRATA plus ocean currents from a point meter at 10 m and an upward-looking ADCP at 100 m, and enhanced vertical resolutions of temperature and salinity.

“NTAS has been operational since 2001 and measures the same parameters as the PIRATA buoys (surface meteorology including longwave radiation and atmospheric pressure), plus ocean currents from a point meter at 10 m and an upward-looking ADCP at 100 m, and enhanced vertical resolutions of temperature and salinity.”

May combine two claims.

The vertical resolutions of temperature sensors on PIRATA moorings are not high enough to resolve the vertical structure of the mixed layer diurnal cycle, which can affect the mean state climate and vertical mixing.

“However, the vertical resolutions of temperature sensors on PIRATA moorings are not high enough to resolve the vertical structure of the mixed layer diurnal cycle, which can affect the mean state climate and vertical mixing (Ham et al., 2009;Hummels et al., 2013).”

• cites Ham et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hummels et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

GDP observations from buoys drogued at 15 m were first collected in the tropical Atlantic in 1990, and the array was sustained beginning in 1997.

“Global Drifter Program (GDP) observations from buoys drogued at 15 m were first collected in the tropical Atlantic in 1990, and the array was sustained beginning in 1997 (Figure 2).”

May combine two claims.

Scatterometers measure effects of centimeter-scale roughness caused by surface stress, but present retrieval algorithms generate estimates of surface wind, not wind stress, because there are no suitable surface wind stress ground-truths for calibration.

“Scatterometers measure the effects of centimeterscale roughness caused by surface stress, but the present retrieval algorithms generate estimates of surface wind, not wind stress, because there are no suitable surface wind stress ground-truths for calibration.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The deep Argo array currently consists of 69 floats, 9 of which are in the tropical Atlantic; the project's goal is to deploy 1228 deep Argo floats globally.

“The deep Argo array currently consists of 69 floats, 9 of which are in the tropical Atlantic (Figure 2B).The project's goal is to deploy 1228 deep Argo floats globally, each with the ability to measure temperature, salinity, and pressure to within ±0.001 • C, ±0.002 psu, and ± 3 dbar, respectively, improving on the standard float accuracies of temperature and salinity.”

• cites Zilberman and Roemmich, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Few of the enhanced drifter observations (subsurface temperature, surface and subsurface salinity, wind velocity, directional wave spectra) are being collected by drifters in the tropical Atlantic.

“However, few of these observations are being collected by drifters in the tropical Atlantic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Satellites give global coverage but only at the surface of the ocean and generally do not resolve timescales less than one day.

“Satellites give global coverage but only at the surface of the ocean and generally do not resolve timescales less than one day.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Conductivity on PIRATA moorings is measured with 5-20 m spacing in the upper 40 m and 20-80 m spacing down to 120 m.

“Conductivity is additionally measured with 5-20 m spacing in the upper 40 m and 20-80 m spacing down to 120 m.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Satellite-based SSS began in 2009 with SMOS; SSS was measured by Aquarius during 2011-2015 and is currently measured by SMAP; complete coverage of the tropical Atlantic is achieved in approximately one week at spatial resolution 1/2°-1°.

“Satellite-based measurements of SSS began in 2009 with the launch of the SMOS sensor.SSS was measured by Aquarius during 2011-2015 and is currently measured by the SMAP radiometer.From these satellites, complete coverage of the tropical Atlantic is achieved in approximately one week at a spatial resolution of 1/2 • -1 • .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Other tropical Atlantic moorings include NTAS at 15N,51W, Melax at 14N,17W, CVOO at 17.6N 24.3W, and several NDBC meteorological and wave buoys.

“Other moorings in the tropical Atlantic include the Northwest Tropical Atlantic Station for air-sea flux measurements (NTAS) at 15 • N, 51 • W, the Melax air-sea buoy in the Senegalese part of the Canary Current Upwelling System at 14 • N, 17 • W, the Cape Verde Ocean Observatory (CVOO) at 17.6 • N 24.3 • W, and several meteorological and wave buoys maintained by the National Data Buoy Center (NDB”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Traditional zooplankton sampling with nets requires extra ship time, complicating its implementation.

“Traditional zooplankton sampling with nets requires extra ship time, complicating its implementation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Proposed satellite missions such as SKIM have great potential to aid research, data assimilation, and forecasts.

“Proposed satellite missions such as the Sea surface KInematics Multiscale monitoring of ocean surface currents (SKIM) have great potential to aid research, data assimilation, and forecasts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Currently, there is no long-term commitment to fund these observations continuously, only to define what constitutes biogeochemical measurements and what should be measured.

“Currently, there is no long-term commitment to fund these observations continuously, only to define what constitutes biogeochemical measurements and what should be measured.”

May combine two claims.

Currently, the deep ocean (>2000 m) is very poorly sampled, severely limiting the accuracy with which AMOC, sea level rise, heat and freshwater storage, and global energy imbalance can be calculated.

“Currently, the deep ocean (>2000 m) is very poorly sampled, severely limiting the accuracy with which these quantities can be calculated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The demand for information about the tropical Atlantic Ocean, including subseasonal to seasonal predictions and longer-term projections in a changing climate, is only expected to increase in the future.

“Therefore, the demand for information about the tropical Atlantic Ocean, including subseasonal to seasonal predictions and longer-term projections in a changing climate, is only expected to increase in the future.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The tropical Atlantic represents a unique and complex mix of many interacting oceanic and climate modes of variability that fluctuate across a wide variety of timescales.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A large and diverse group of human populations depends on the tropical Atlantic Ocean for sustenance and recreation and is adversely affected by climate-driven changes in precipitation patterns, extreme weather and ocean ecosystems.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Sustaining drifter observations in the tropical Atlantic is difficult because it is a region of net surface divergence.

“Sustaining drifter observations in the tropical Atlantic is difficult as it is a region of net surface divergence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).