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Cited by 280Seaweed-derived Bioactive CompoundsMicrobial Metabolites in Food BiotechnologyMarine and coastal plant biology

The Potential of Seaweeds as a Source of Functional Ingredients of Prebiotic and Antioxidant Value

Open access
Gomez-Zavaglia, Andrea, Prieto Lage, Miguel A., Jimenez-Lopez, Cecilia, Mejuto, Juan C., Simal-Gandara, Jesus·2019·Antioxidants
DOI 10.3390/antiox8090406PMC PMC6770939
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Abstract

Two thirds of the world is covered by oceans, whose upper layer is inhabited by algae. This means that there is a large extension to obtain these photoautotrophic organisms. Algae have undergone a boom in recent years, with consequent discoveries and advances in this field. Algae are not only of high ecological value but also of great economic importance. Possible applications of algae are very diverse and include anti-biofilm activity, production of biofuels, bioremediation, as fertilizer, as fish feed, as food or food ingredients, in pharmacology (since they show antioxidant or contraceptive activities), in cosmeceutical formulation, and in such other applications as filters or for obtaining minerals. In this context, algae as food can be of help to maintain or even improve human health, and there is a growing interest in new products called functional foods, which can promote such a healthy state. Therefore, in this search, one of the main areas of research is the extraction and characterization of new natural ingredients with biological activity (e.g., prebiotic and antioxidant) that can contribute to consumers’ well-being. The present review shows the results of a bibliographic survey on the chemical composition of macroalgae, together with a critical discussion about their potential as natural sources of new functional ingredients.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review surveys macroalgae chemical composition and their potential as sources of prebiotic and antioxidant functional ingredients. It concludes seaweeds are promising but require further in vitro/in vivo prebiotic evidence and standardization/regularization before functional food use.

Key findings

  • Macroalgae are diverse: more than 30,000 algae species have been described, including approximately 15,000 macroalgae, divided into green (Chlorophyta), red (Rhodophyta), and brown (Ochrophyta/Phaeophyceae) groups; invasive macroalgae represent between 10% and 40% of introduced marine species.
  • Seaweed polysaccharides are dietary fiber (33%–75% of total composition; soluble fraction 50%–85%) and include agar/carrageenans, fucoidans, laminarans, and alginates; non-digestible oligo/polysaccharides such as GOS, AGAROS, XOS, NAOS, and ALGOS are prebiotic candidates. In vivo examples include Ascophyllum nodosum polysaccharides increasing Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes and total short-chain fatty acids, Ecklonia radiata fractions increasing Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and decreasing Enterococcus, and alginate oligosaccharides increasing bifidobacteria/lactobacilli in rats more than FOS.
  • Antioxidant compounds include carotenoids, phycobilins, phenolic compounds (brown algae phlorotannins can reach up to 15% of dry weight), vitamins, and minerals; seaweed lipids contain fatty acids within 1–6 g/100 g dry weight, with some species having eicosapentaenoic acid up to 24%.
  • World aquatic plant production reached 30.5 Mt in 2015, with 96% (29.4 Mt) from aquaculture; in 2016 aquaculture supplied 96.5% of 31.2 million tons, and 221 algae species are collected globally (145 for human nutrition and 101 for phycocolloid production).

Methods

  • Narrative review/bibliographic survey on the chemical composition of macroalgae and their potential as natural sources of functional ingredients, covering classification, invasive seaweeds, aquaculture, industrial applications, prebiotics, antioxidants, and production/consumption statistics.
  • No primary experimental data or systematic search/meta-analysis is described; evidence is drawn from cited literature and summarized in tables and figures.
  • The main analysis is a critical discussion of applications and bioactive potential, not a quantitative synthesis.

Limitations

  • Stated: further in vitro and in vivo investigations on prebiotic properties are still necessary before incorporating such ingredients into functional foods; the identity of harvests as fresh materials and product regularization need to be solved because seaweeds from different locations can produce different levels of active compounds.
  • Stated: aquaculture expansion faces problems such as lack of marine spaces and initial economic support; impact-control studies do not always allow accurate conclusions about invasive algae impact; information on interactions among invasive species is scarce.
  • Evident: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy, risk-of-bias assessment, or quantitative pooling, and many cited bioactivity findings come from heterogeneous in vitro or animal studies.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/antiox8090406

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 153 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

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    Algae can be used to eliminate inorganic nutrients such as phosphorus compounds, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other compounds used for their metabolism, thus decreasing negative impacts on the environment.

    “In both aquaculture systems described, algae can be used as a solution to eliminate inorganic nutrients (phosphorus compounds, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other compounds used for their metabolism), thus decreasing the negative impacts on the environment [35,36,37,38].”
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    The use of algae as a bulk feedstuff or as a supplement depends on biomass availability, composition, and cost.

    “The use of algae as a bulk feedstuff or as a supplement depends on the biomass availability, as well as its composition and cost [73].”
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  • Premisecitation

    Brominated furanones obtained by extraction from the red algae Delisea pulchra interfere in Salmonella enterica biofilm formation.

    “In that study, it was observed that brominated furanones obtained by extraction from the red algae Delisea pulchra, interfere in this biofilm formation, but more studies are needed to determine a long term efficiency [41].”
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  • Premisecitation

    Some red algae produce sulfated polysaccharides showing antiviral capacity against viruses responsible for different infectious diseases.

    “Specifically, some red algae produce sulfated polysaccharides showing antiviral capacity against viruses responsible for different infectious diseases.”
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  • Premisecitation

    Algae from the three large groups (green, brown, and red algae) produce polysaccharides that show antibacterial activity against pathogens such as Aeromonas salmonicida or Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

    “According to other authors [58,76], algae from the three large groups (green, brown, and red algae) produce interesting polysaccharides that show antibacterial activity against some pathogen bacteria such as Aeromonas salmonicida or Pseudomonas aeruginosa, both being of importance because of their high pathogenicity, resistance, and incidence in humans.”
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    Premisecitation

    Sulfated polysaccharides obtained from marine macroalgae have antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and antifouling properties in dental plaque bacteria models.

    “Antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and antifouling properties of sulfated polysaccharides obtained from marine macroalgae were also studied using dental plaque bacteria as model [39].”
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    Premisecitation

    Macroalgae can be divided into three large groups: Chlorophytas (green algae) and Rhodophytas (red algae), both in the Plantae kingdom, and Ochrophytas (mostly Phaeophyceae, brown seaweed), in the Protista kingdom.

    “Much of the literature agrees that macroalgae can be divided into 3 large groups: The Chlorophytas, commonly known as green algae, the Rhodophytas or red algae, both included in the Plantae kingdom; and the Ochrophytas, mostly classified in the Phaeophyceae class.”
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    Premisecitation

    Invasive algae present fast growth rates and biomass accumulation, high levels of repellency against herbivores, and often low levels of epiphytism.

    “invasive algae present fast growth rates and biomass accumulation, high levels of repellency against herbivores, and often low levels of epiphytism.”
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    Premisecitation

    Algae participate actively in the control and biomonitoring of organic pollutants.

    “Algae can be one remedy at the aquatic ecosystem level, since they participate actively in the control and biomonitoring of organic pollutants [48].”
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    Premisecitation

    A single algal biomass can be used to produce several different kinds of renewable biofuels depending on the treatment applied.

    “One of them is that a single algal biomass can be used to produce several different kinds of renewable biofuels depending on the treatment applied (anaerobic digestion and biodiesel derived from algal oil, among others) [32].”
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    Premisecitation

    Microalgae nutritional aspects are strongly dependent on culture conditions and on factors such as culture phase, temperature, and availability of nutrients.

    “As for the nutritional aspects of microalgae, they are strongly dependent on culture conditions as well as on factors such as culture phase, temperature, and availability of nutrients [71].”
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    • cites [71] Cañavate Hors, J.P. (2011). Funciones de las microalgas en acuicultura. Las Algas Como Recurso. Valorización. Aplicaciones Industriales y Tendencias Aplicaciones, CETMAR.

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    Macroalgae represent between 10% and 40% of the total number of species introduced into the marine ecosystem.

    “In fact, macroalgae represent between 10% and 40% of the total number of species introduced into the marine ecosystem [21].”
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    • cites [21] Booth, 2007, Molecular approaches to the study of invasive seaweeds, Seaweed Invasions: A Synthesis of Ecological, Economic and Legal Imperatives

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    Premisecitation

    Algae biomass has good nutritional properties as a source of micronutrients or as a bulk feedstuff, and has a positive effect on the physiological state of larvae due to diversification of bacterial flora.

    “There are evidences of good nutritional properties of algae biomass as a source of micronutrients or as a bulk feedstuff. Moreover, they have a positive effect on the physiological state of the larvae due to, for example, the diversification of bacterial flora [72].”
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    Premisecitation

    Certain algae act as hyper-accumulators and hyper-adsorbents with high selectivity for different elements, and contribute to an alkaline environment that leads heavy metals to precipitate during treatments.

    “Another study [46] reported that certain algae act as “hyper-accumulators” and “hyper-adsorbents” with a high selectivity for different elements. They also contribute to an alkaline environment, leading heavy metals to precipitate during treatments.”
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    Premisecitation

    Algae are ideal for bioremediation of wastewater because their culture is very economical and easy to achieve on a large scale, and they are capable of capturing a high percentage of metal ions.

    “Algae are a group of great interest for this purpose, since they are ideal for the bioremediation of wastewater thanks to their culture being very economical and easy to achieve on a large scale, since they are capable of capturing a high percentage of metal ions.”
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    Premisecitation

    Invasive macroalgae cause environmental problems by displacing native species, causing biodiversity loss, damage to ecosystem structure and function, and landscape homogenization, and also cause losses in fishing, recreational, and other aquatic industrial sectors.

    “These algae not only cause an environmental problem by displacing other native species, causing a loss of biodiversity, damage in the structure and function of the native ecosystem, and a homogenization of the landscape, but also cause losses in the fishing, recreational sector, and many other industrial sectors related with aquatic environment.”
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    Premisecitation

    L. papillosa contains bioactive compounds that could serve as promising potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer agents.

    “L. papillosa algae was also studied and the conclusion was that it contains some bioactive compounds that could serve as a promising potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer agents [56].”
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    Premisecitation

    Extracts from red algae administered to female rats in the first seven days of pregnancy have post-coital contraceptive protection without relevant adverse effects.

    “Different studies [49,50] with extracts from red algae were carried out. These extracts were administrated to female rats in the first seven days of their pregnancies. As result, it was demonstrated that these extracts have post-coital contraceptive protection in the rats without showing any relevant adverse effect.”
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    Premisecitation

    Several red and brown algae are used in the production of three hydrocolloids: agar, alginate, and carrageenan.

    “According to a previous study [74], several red and brown algae are used in the production of three hydrocolloids: Agar, alginate, and carrageenan.”
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    Premisecitation

    Brown and red marine seaweeds are the most used species for cosmeceutical products, and extracts rich in phlorotannins, polysaccharides, carotenoids, fatty acids, bioactive proteins, vitamins, and minerals can be obtained from seaweed.

    “For that type of product, brown and red marine seaweeds are the most used species. Extracts rich in potential cosmeceutical ingredients, such as phlorotannins, polysaccharides, carotenoids, fatty acids, as well as bioactive proteins, vitamins, and minerals can be obtained from seaweed [52].”
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    • cites [52] Kim, S.K. (2012). Marine Cosmeceuticals: Trends and Prospects, Tayor & Francis Group. [1st ed.].

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    Premisecitation

    Many invasive species have been demonstrated to include cosmeceutical compounds, but metabolite amounts often vary according to geographical and seasonal conditions.

    “Many of the invasive species have been demonstrated to include these compounds. However, metabolite amounts often vary according to geographical and seasonal conditions, so environmental variability has to be taken into consideration [87].”
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    Premisecitation

    Extracts from Bryopsis sp. contain depsipeptides kahalalide A and F, and kahalalide F has anticancer properties controlling tumors causing colon, lung, and prostate cancer.

    “Extracts from algae Bryopsis sp. contain some compounds (depsipeptides kahalalide A and F) whose future seems to lie with the development of kahalalide F for treatment of lung cancer, tumors, and AIDS. This is due to the fact that kahalalide F has anticancer properties, namely the control of tumors causing colon, lung and prostate cancer [58].”
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    Premisecitation

    Feeding fish with red algae Gracilaria gracilis powder favors genetic expression of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, and improves the state of the body's immune system.

    “As a curiosity that strengthens the utilization of algae as antioxidant tools, a study carried out by [86] in which fishes were fed with red algae Gracilaria gracilis powder, demonstrates that this nutritional input favors genetic expression of some antioxidant enzymes, like superoxide dismutase and catalase, what it also improves the state of the body’s immune system.”
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    Premisecitation

    Seaweed antioxidant capacity in vitro is attributed to the presence of new antioxidant compounds like carotenoids, certain polysaccharides, and polyphenols, which show scavenger activity and can neutralize reactive oxygen species through their own oxidation.

    “Different researches have demonstrated seaweed antioxidant capacity in vitro, attributed to the presence of new antioxidant compounds like carotenoids, certain polysaccharides, and polyphenols, which show scavenger activity, being able to neutralize those reactive oxygen species through their own oxidation, since their affinity to those oxidative compounds is very high [56,68,80,81,82,83,84,85].”
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    Premisecitation

    Prebiotic compounds must not be hydrolyzed in the upper part of the gastro-intestinal tract, ensuring their arrival to the colon where they stimulate growth and/or activity of bacteria, positively modulating the intestinal microbiota.

    “As the target of most prebiotic compounds is the gut, such ingredients must not be hydrolyzed in the upper part of the gastro-intestinal tract. This ensures their safe arrival to the colon, where they stimulate the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria, thus positively modulating the intestinal microbiota [121].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [121] Gibson, 2017, Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics, Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. source

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    Premisecitation

    Seaweeds used as fertilizers enrich the soil with N, P, and K, promote seed germination, increase frost resistance, and improve resistance to fungal and insect pests.

    “They are appropriate for that use since they have the characteristic of enriching the soil with N, P, and K, favoring agriculture, and they have the ability to promote seed germination, increase frost resistance, and improve resistance to fungal and insect pests [32,43,53].”
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    Premisecitation

    Carrageenans can be classified into three groups (kappa, iota, lambda) differing in the quantity and position of sulfate ester substituents and in 3,6-anhydro-d-galactose content.

    “They can be classified into three groups, according to their industrial use (kappa-, iota-, and lambda-), differing in the quantity and position of their sulfate ester substituents, as well as in the 3,6-anhydro-d-galactose content.”
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    Premisecitation

    Laminarans are polysaccharides present in Pheophytes (Laminaria species) and are responsible for the food reserve of brown algae.

    “Laminarans are other type of polysaccharides present in Pheophytes (Laminaria species). They are responsible for the food reserve of brown algae.”
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    Premisecitation

    In vitro studies demonstrated that cosmeceutical compounds from seaweed are UV protective or have an inhibitory effect on melanogenesis.

    “In vitro studies also demonstrated that these compounds are UV protective, or have an inhibitory effect on melanogenesis [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Agatonovic-Kustrin, S., and Morton, D.W. (2013). Cosmeceuticals Derived from Bioactive Substances Found in Marine Algae. J. Oceanogr. Mar. Res., 1.

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    Premisecitation

    Seaweed lipid content includes a concentration of fatty acids within 1 and 6 g/100 g of dry weight, and some species have high concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely eicosapentaenoic acid up to 24%.

    “In the same way, their lipid content includes a concentration of fatty acids within 1 and 6 g/100 g of dry weight. In addition, it should be noted that some species have high concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely eicosapentaenoic acid (up to 24%) [95].”
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    • cites [95] Peinado, 2014, Chemical composition, antioxidant activity and sensory evaluation of five different species of brown edible seaweeds, Food Res. Int. source

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    Premisereasoning

    Kappa- and iota-carrageenans are gel forming and contain a 3,6-anhydro-galactose unit.

    “Kappa- and iota-carrageenans are gel forming and contain a 3,6-anhydro-galactose unit.”
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    Premisecitation

    Dry algae raw material can have a mineral content up to 50% of weight, plus high amounts of organic nitrogen derivatives.

    “obtaining a dry raw material with a mineral content that can amount up to 50% of the weight, in addition to high amounts of organic nitrogen derivatives.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Some prebiotics naturally occurring in seaweeds are saccharides with a degree of polymerization within 2 and 9 (sometimes within 8 and 20), and some researchers consider up to 25 sugar residues.

    “Some prebiotics (or prebiotic candidates) naturally occurring in seaweeds are saccharides presenting a degree of polymerization (DP) within 2 and 9 (sometimes within 8 and 20). Some researchers consider up to 25 sugar residues [122].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [122] Courtois, 2009, Oligosaccharides from land plants and algae: Production and applications in therapeutics and biotechnology, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. source

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    Premisecitation

    Using fish farming and intensive livestock effluents for the production of algae biomass yields environmental benefits due to seaweed biofiltration and depuration capacities, favoring purification of effluents and reducing costs.

    “Using these wastes for the production of algae biomass, environmental benefits could be obtained due to the seaweed biofiltration and depuration capacities, favoring the purification of effluents, as well as promoting a reduction of costs thanks to the use of waste waters as a source of necessary compounds [69].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Figueiroa, F.L., Gil, C., Rico, R.M., Moriñigo, M.Á., Gómez-Pinchetti, J.L., and Abdala Díaz, R. (2011). Biofiltración de efluentes mediante algas: Valorización de la biomasa (alimentos funcionales y biodiesel). Las Algas Como Recurso: Valorización, Aplicaciones Industriales y Tendencias, CETMAR.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most seaweed polysaccharides cannot be digested by humans and can be considered dietary fiber, constituting 33%-75% of total composition; soluble fractions account for 50%-85% of total dietary fiber content.

    “One of the most important nutritionally relevant components of seaweeds are polysaccharides, most of them cannot be digested by humans, and thus, they can be considered as dietary fiber (33%–75% of the total composition) [96,97]. In turn, soluble fractions account between 50% and 85% of total dietary fiber content [96].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [96] 2010, Dietary fibre and physicochemical properties of several edible seaweeds from the northwestern Spanish coast, Food Res. Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [97] Ramnani, 2012, Invitro fermentation and prebiotic potential of novel low molecular weight polysaccharides derived from agar and alginate seaweeds, Anaerobe source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Alginates are present in brown seaweeds as sodium and calcium alginate, forming highly viscous solutions, used for several technological applications.

    “Alginates are present in brown seaweeds as sodium and calcium alginate, conforming highly viscous solutions, used for several technological applications”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [99] Gupta, 2011, Bioactive potential and possible health effects of edible brown seaweeds, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Lambda-carrageenans have only galactose residues and are used as thickeners.

    “In turn, lambda-carrageenans have only galactose residues and are used as thickeners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Currently, algae-based fertilizers commercialized include micronutrients and macronutrients that help plants grow properly.

    “Currently, algae-based fertilizers that are commercialized include a set of micronutrients and macronutrients that help the plants grow properly [107].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [107] McLachlan, 1985, Macroalgae (seaweeds): Industrial resources and their utilization, Plant Soil source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Carrageenans can be obtained from red marine algae like Eucheuma, Chondrus, and Iridaea, and are used for thickening and stabilization of dairy products, medicines, and cosmetics.

    “Carrageenans, also described previously, can be obtained from several species of red marine algae like Eucheuma (Philippines), Chondrus (United States), and Iridaea (Chile). Their main uses are thickening and stabilization of some dairy products like syrups, puddings or canned foods for animals, and they are also used in the elaboration of some medicines and some cosmetics as shampoos and creams [”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [98] Delattre, 2011, Galactans: An overview of their most important sourcing and applications as natural polysaccharides, Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Algae have been used throughout the world as fertilizers for centuries.

    “As mentioned above, algae have been used throughout the world as fertilizers for centuries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [107] McLachlan, 1985, Macroalgae (seaweeds): Industrial resources and their utilization, Plant Soil source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Many phycocolloids are currently included in a wide range of processed and ready-to-eat foods, such as instant cakes or synthetic toppings.

    “Many of these compounds are currently included in a wide range of processed and ready-to-eat foods, such as instant cakes or synthetic toppings [103].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [103] Pangestuti, R., and Kim, S. (2015). An Overview of Phycocolloids: The Principal Commercial. Marine Algae Extracts, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Certain components can be lost during acid hydrolysis and most glycosidic bonds are not specifically hydrolyzed, giving rise to various low molecular weight derivatives.

    “In addition, certain components can be lost during the process and most of the glycosidic bonds are not specifically hydrolyzed, thus giving rise to various low molecular weight derivatives.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although prebiotic properties must be demonstrated in vivo and in vitro, the capacity to safely arrive to the gut converts non-digestible ingredients into potential prebiotic compounds.

    “Although prebiotic properties must be well-demonstrated both in vivo and in vitro [121], the capacity to safe arrive to the gut converts non-digestible ingredients in potential prebiotic compounds (or prebiotic candidates).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [121] Gibson, 2017, Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics, Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Agar use in the R&D industry, microbiological and analytical laboratories is widespread, mainly for culture media.

    “However, the use of agar in the R&D industry, as well as in microbiological and analytical laboratories, is really widespread, mainly for the preparation of culture media compatible with a wide variety of cell lines [105].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [105] Lee, 2017, Biosynthesis of agar in red seaweeds: A review, Carbohydr. Polym. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fucoidans are branched polysaccharides sulfate esters, soluble in water and acid, consisting in (1→3) and (1→4)-linked-l-fucose residues.

    “They are branched polysaccharides sulfate esters, soluble in water and acid, consisting in (1→3) and (1→4)-linked-l-fucose residues, that may be organized as (1→3)-α-fucan chains or as alternating (1→3) and (1→4)-bonded α-l-fucose residues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [99] Gupta, 2011, Bioactive potential and possible health effects of edible brown seaweeds, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [100] Ale, 2011, Important determinants for fucoidan bioactivity: A critical review of structure-function relations and extraction methods for fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides from brown seaweeds, Mar. Drugs source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Certain bonds can be hydrolyzed with enzymes, whereas others require other techniques because no natural enzymes are able to hydrolyze them.

    “certain bonds can be hydrolyzed with enzymes, whereas others require other techniques as no natural enzymes are able to hydrolyze them [120,123].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [120] Zaporozhets, 2014, The prebiotic potential of polysaccharides and extracts of seaweeds, Russ. J. Mar. Biol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] Klarzynski, 2003, Sulfated Fucan Oligosaccharides Elicit Defense Responses in Tobacco and Local and Systemic Resistance Against Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Phycocolloids classification includes three major groups: alginates, carrageenans, and agars, and they are safe for humans and animals' consumption.

    “Phycocolloids classification includes three major groups: Alginates, carrageenans, and agars, and are interesting because they are safe for humans and animals’ consumption.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These oligo/polysaccharides achieve at least one of the requested criteria for prebiotics and take part of the dietary fiber.

    “Therefore, they achieve at least one of the requested criteria and take part of the dietary fiber.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: None of the oligo/polysaccharides from seaweeds is degraded by enzymes in the first part of the gastro-intestinal tract.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The microwave technique is economical, easy to use, non-toxic and green.

    “Therefore, the use of this technique offers several clear advantages: it is economical, easy to use, non-toxic and is green, since the energetic and time consumption are not environmentally harmful [132].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [132] Sun, 2012, Immunomodulation and antitumor activities of different-molecular-weight polysaccharides from Porphyridium cruentum, Carbohydr. Polym. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Some oligo and polysaccharides extracted from algae are not hydrolyzed in the upper part of the gastro-intestinal tract, so they represent novel potentially useful raw materials for obtaining prebiotics.

    “Taking into account that some oligo and polysaccharides extracted from algae are not hydrolyzed in the upper part of the gastro-intestinal tract, they represent novel potentially useful raw materials for the obtaining of prebiotics [134].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134] Di, 2018, In vitro digestion by saliva, simulated gastric and small intestinal juices and fermentation by human fecal microbiota of sulfated polysaccharides from Gracilaria rubra, J. Funct. Foods source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: None of the oligo/polysaccharides from seaweeds is degraded by enzymes in the first part of the gastro-intestinal tract.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The free radical technique is effective for hydrolysis of polysaccharides and does not affect the structure of compounds when correctly performed.

    “The use of free radicals is another effective technique for the hydrolysis of polysaccharides, since it does not affect the structure of the compounds when it is correctly performed [122].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [122] Courtois, 2009, Oligosaccharides from land plants and algae: Production and applications in therapeutics and biotechnology, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Products from microwave hydrolysis do not undergo structural changes and have enhanced immunomodulatory and anticancer capacities compared to the original substrate.

    “The obtained products do not undergo structural changes and have a surprisingly enhanced immunomodulatory and anticancer capacities with regard to the original substrate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [131] Zhou, 2004, In vivo antitumor and immunomodulation activities of different molecular weight lambda-carrageenans from Chondrus ocellatus, Pharmacol. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ecklonia radiata oligosaccharides administered to rats lead to a decrease in toxic protein fermentation products, enhancement of butyrate-producing Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and decrease of potentially pathogenic Enterococcus, demonstrating a potential prebiotic effect.

    “Such fractions lead to a decrease in the levels of toxic protein fermentation products, enhancement of the numbers of butyrate-producing Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and decrease of the numbers of potentially pathogenic Enterococcus, thus demonstrating a potential prebiotic effect [136].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [136] Charoensiddhi, 2017, Gut health benefits of brown seaweed Ecklonia radiata and its polysaccharides demonstrated in vivo in a rat model, J. Funct. Foods source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Polysaccharides obtained from Ascophyllum nodosum increase the quantity of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, suggesting potential to decrease the risk of obesity.

    “Recently, it was reported that polysaccharides obtained from the brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum increase the quantity of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, suggesting the potential of Ascophyllum nodosum polysaccharides to decrease the risk of obesity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [117] Chen, 2018, Digestibility of sulfated polysaccharide from the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum and its effect on the human gut microbiota in vitro, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Agarose hydrolysates (NAOS) increase bifidobacteria and lactobacilli in mice and lower Bacteroides compared to FOS controls.

    “Similar increases were observed by [138] in mice fed with diets supplemented with agarose hydrolysates (NAOS). Moreover, a lower number of Bacteroides compared to the controls fed with FOS, were observed [135].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [138] Hu, 2006, Prebiotic effects of neoagaro-oligosaccharides prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis of agarose, Anaerobe source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] Sullivan, 2010, Prebiotics from marine macroalgae for human and animal health applications, Mar. Drugs source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    All these techniques can be optimized to guarantee the highest results.

    “All these techniques can be optimized to guarantee the highest results [133].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133] Caleja, 2018, Optimization and comparison of heat and ultrasound assisted extraction techniques to obtain anthocyanin compounds from Arbutus unedo L. Fruits, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The free radical technique can hydrolyze fucoidans into low molecular weight compounds (≈8 kDa), requiring purification of the products.

    “Other authors have demonstrated that this technique can be applied for the hydrolysis of fucoidans in low molecular weight compounds (≈8 kDa), although then it is necessary to apply other procedures for the purification of the obtained products [129].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [129] Nardella, 1996, Anticoagulant low molecular weight fucans produced by radical process and ion exchange chromatography of high molecular weight fucans extracted from the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum, Carbohydr. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Higher solubility of lower molecular weight products was remarked as a possible explanation for the enhanced capacities.

    “The higher solubility of the products (with lower molecular weight) was remarked as a possible explanation for such observations [131].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [131] Zhou, 2004, In vivo antitumor and immunomodulation activities of different molecular weight lambda-carrageenans from Chondrus ocellatus, Pharmacol. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some in vitro studies in animals conclude that some algae have the ability to meet energy and protein requirements for healthy growth, while other algae contain compounds with biological activities, so both types could be used as prebiotics to favor breeding.

    “Some in vitro studies in some animals such as pigs, rabbits, birds, and some ruminants conclude that some algae have the ability to meet the energy and protein requirements for healthy growth, while other algae contain certain compounds that have biological activities, so that both types could be used as prebiotics to favor the breeding of such animals [93].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [93] Makkar, 2016, Seaweeds for livestock diets: A review, Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Differences in digestive physiology and anatomy must be considered when extrapolating data from ruminants to monogastrics.

    “However, the differences in digestive physiology and anatomy must be considered when attempting to extrapolate data from ruminants (cattle and sheep) to monogastrics, such as pigs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Carotenoids are hydrophobic tetraterpenes with branched hydrocarbons and a methyl group bound at C-40.

    “Their structure corresponds to that of hydrophobic tetraterpenes with a structure of branched hydrocarbons with a methyl group bound at C-40 [144,145].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [144] Roriz, 2017, Floral parts of Gomphrena globosa L. as a novel alternative source of betacyanins: Optimization of the extraction using response surface methodology, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [145] Albuquerque, 2016, Catechin-based extract optimization obtained from Arbutus unedo L. fruits using maceration/microwave/ultrasound extraction techniques, Ind. Crops Prod. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    More than 600 types of carotenoids are known, divided into carotenoids and xanthophylls.

    “More than 600 types of carotenoids are known, which can be divided into two large groups according to their molecular structure: Carotenoids and xanthophylls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Laminarin supplementation of rats feed enhances the cecal population of bifidobacteria, with no significant effect on lactobacilli.

    “In addition, laminarin supplementation of rats feed also enhanced the cecal population of bifidobacteria, with no significant effect on lactobacilli.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139] Kuda, 2005, Inhibitory effects of laminaran and low molecular alginate against the putrefactive compounds produced by intestinal microflora in vitro and in rats, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Xanthophylls are oxygenated derivatives of carotenes, found in green algae and more developed plants, with some compounds exclusive from green algae.

    “In turn, xanthophylls are described as oxygenated derivatives of carotenes (such as violaxanthin), and can be found in green algae, as well as in more developed plants, although there are compounds (i.e., canthaxanthin and loroxanthin) that are exclusive from green algae [147,148].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [147] Baroli, 2000, Molecular genetics of xanthophyll-dependent photoprotection in green algae and plants, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [148] Hirschberg, 2001, Ketocarotenoid Biosynthesis Outside of Plastids in the Unicellular Green Alga Haematococcus pluvialis, J. Biol. Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Laminarin suppresses certain putrefactive compounds considered risk markers for colon cancer, such as indole, cresol, and sulfide, and has immunomodulatory properties.

    “Moreover, laminarin also suppressed certain putrefactive compounds considered as risk markers for colon cancer, such as indole, cresol, and sulfide, and had immunomodulatory properties [139].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139] Kuda, 2005, Inhibitory effects of laminaran and low molecular alginate against the putrefactive compounds produced by intestinal microflora in vitro and in rats, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    All organisms that carry out photosynthesis contain carotenoids, but carotenoids are also present in some bacteria and fungi.

    “All organisms that carry out photosynthesis contain carotenoids, which does not mean that they are exclusive compounds of these autotrophic organisms, since they are also present in some bacteria and fungi [146].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [146] Guerrero, 2007, Outdoor cultivation of microalgae for carotenoid production: Current state and perspectives, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Extraction processes based on physical methods are the most efficient ones, since they present minimal or no adverse effects on human health, do not alter the original structure of compounds, and are environmentally friendly.

    “Extraction processes based on physical methods are the most efficient ones, since they present minimal or no adverse effects on human health. Besides that, these methods do not alter the original structure of the compounds and are environmentally friendly [132].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [132] Sun, 2012, Immunomodulation and antitumor activities of different-molecular-weight polysaccharides from Porphyridium cruentum, Carbohydr. Polym. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Many of the compounds obtained show good bioactive capacities, so their use as prebiotics is highly recommended.

    “Additionally, many of the compounds obtained show good bioactive capacities, so their use as prebiotics is highly recommended [143].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [143] Holck, 2011, Tailored enzymatic production of oligosaccharides from sugar beet pectin and evidence of differential effects of a single DP chain length difference on human faecal microbiota composition after in vitro fermentation, Process Biochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Phycobiliproteins are secondary pigments generated by microalgae that help them exploit light energy while protecting them from harmful radiation.

    “Phycobiliproteins are secondary pigments generated by microalgae, which help them to exploit the light energy while protecting them from harmful radiation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Microalgae biomass contains most essential vitamins and an interesting variety of minerals.

    “Among them, microalgae biomass contains most of the essential vitamins (e.g., A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, E, nicotinate, biotin folic acid, and pantothenic acid), as well as an interesting variety of minerals (e.g., Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Zn) [163].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [163] Richmond, A. (2004). Handbook of microalgal culture: Biotechnology and applied phycology. Handbook of Microalgal Culture: Biotechnology an Applied Phycology, Blackwell Science Ltd. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Phycocyanin is capable of generating a blue color that other natural dyes do not achieve, so it is used in foods and cosmetics, mainly in Japan.

    “Despite being a labile molecule, phycocyanin is capable of generating a blue color that other natural dyes do not achieve, so it is used in the manufacture of foods such as ice cream, yogurt, chewing gum, and beverages, as well as in various cosmetic products, mainly in Japan [154].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [154] Jespersen, 2005, Heat and light stability of three natural blue colorants for use in confectionery and beverages, Eur. Food Res. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Phenolic compounds are commonly classified into 5 large groups: flavonoids, lignans, tannins, tocopherols, and phenolic acids.

    “Phenolic compounds are commonly classified into 5 large groups: Flavonoids (the largest subgroup and associated with different bioactivities, among which, as previously described, the antioxidant, and radical scavenging activity) [158,159], lignans, tannins, tocopherols, and phenolic acids [160].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [158] Hopia, 1999, Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compounds, J. Agric. Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [159] Pinela, 2017, Valorisation of tomato wastes for development of nutrient-rich antioxidant ingredients: A sustainable approach towards the needs of the today’s society, Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [160] Thomas, 2011, Potential pharmacological applications of polyphenolic derivatives from marine brown algae, Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Astaxanthin is a skin and eye protector, muscle strengthener, immune modulator, and coloring agent.

    “Despite being less known, astaxanthin is also a skin and eye protector, muscle strengthener, immune modulator, and coloring agent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The main microalgae producing phycobiliproteins are cyanobacteria (Spirulina, phycocyanin, blue) and cryptomonads, and they are also found in red algae (Porphyridium, phycoerythrin, red).

    “The main microalgae producing these compounds are cyanobacteria (Spirulina, which produces phycocyanin, blue) and cryptomonads, but are also found in red algae (Porphyridium, which produces phycoerythrin, red).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Carotenoids have provitamin A activity.

    “In addition, carotenoids have an associated provitamin A activity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Some microalgae species contain high levels of essential vitamins requested in higher quantities by humans; B12 can be combined with iron, making it an ideal dietary supplement for vegetarian diets, e.g., Spirulina.

    “In fact, some species of microalgae contain high levels of some essential vitamins that are requested in higher quantities by humans. This is the case of B12 vitamin, which can be combined with a mineral content, such as iron, thus converting it in an ideal dietary supplement for vegetarian diets. An example of such combination is Spirulina.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Phlorotannins are composed of up to eight rings interconnected, giving antioxidant properties much higher than many polyphenols from terrestrial plants, since most contain only three or four rings.

    “In addition, they are composed of up to eight rings interconnected with each other, which give antioxidant properties much higher than many polyphenols obtained from terrestrial plants, since most of them contain only three or four rings in its structure [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155] Duan, 2006, Evaluation of antioxidant property of extract and fractions obtained from a red alga, Polysiphonia urceolata, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites produced by terrestrial and aquatic plants, including algae.

    “Phenolic compounds are a group of secondary metabolites comprising a wide variety of compounds produced by both terrestrial and aquatic plants, which include, of course, algae [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155] Duan, 2006, Evaluation of antioxidant property of extract and fractions obtained from a red alga, Polysiphonia urceolata, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The microalgae species producing the highest amounts of carotenoids are Dunaliella salina (β-carotene) and Haematococcus pluvialis (astaxanthin).

    “The microalgae species producing the highest amounts of carotenoids are Dunaliella salina, which produces β-carotene, and Haematococcus pluvialis, which produces astaxanthin.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Phenolic compounds have antioxidant properties, preventing formation of free radicals because of their metal ion chelating capacity.

    “One of their most outstanding features is their antioxidant properties, as they prevent the formation of many free radicals because of their metal ion chelating capacity [156,157].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [156] Manach, 2004, Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [157] Pinela, 2016, Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants from a surplus tomato crop by response surface methodology, Food Bioprod. Process. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Carotenoids play a photoprotector role in algae, preventing damage to their photosynthetic system.

    “Carotenoid essentially plays a photoprotector role in algae, preventing their photosynthetic system from damage.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    β-carotene is widespread in industry as a natural ingredient providing color to food and cosmetic formulations.

    “Currently, the use of β-carotene is widespread in the industry because it is a natural ingredient that provides color to matrices, either in food (such as cheeses and butter) or cosmetic formulations [151].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [151] Raja, 2007, Exploitation of Dunaliella for β-carotene production, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Certain secondary metabolites from marine algae, including antioxidants, are able to decelerate or prevent oxidation processes, thus being favorable health related compounds.

    “On the other hand, certain secondary metabolites from marine algae, including antioxidants, are able to decelerate or prevent oxidation processes, thus being favorable health related compounds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In 2016, aquaculture was the source of 96.5% of the total volume of 31.2 million tons of aquatic plants, including wild-collected and farmed plants together.

    “In 2016, aquaculture was the source of 96.5% of the total volume of 31.2 million tons, including wild-collected and farmed plants together.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] FAO (2018). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018-Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals, FAO.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    More than 15,000 different molecules have been isolated from algae to date.

    “more than 15 000 different molecules have been isolated to date [170]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [170] FAO (2011). World Aquaculture 2010, FAO.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ten algae species are largely cultivated, especially brown Laminaria japonica, Undaria pinnatifida and red Porphyra spp., Porphyra tenera, Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus alvarezii, Gracilaria spp., and Gracilaria verrucosa.

    “From these, ten are largely cultivated, specially the brown ones Laminaria japonica, Undaria pinnatifida and the red ones, Porphyra spp., Porphyra tenera, Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus alvarezii and Gracilaria spp. and Gracilaria verrucosa [169].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [169] Wikfors, 2001, Impact of algal research in aquaculture, J. Phycol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Macroalgae have many applications, most relevant production of human food products, and 15% is attributed to algae extracts like hydrocolloids for fertilizers, animal feeds, and biological activities.

    “Macroalgae have a large number of applications being the most relevant the production of human food products [74] and 15% is attributed to algae extracts, like hydrocolloids for their use in fertilizers, animal feeds and for its biological activities [167].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [74] Holdt, 2011, Bioactive compounds in seaweed: Functional food applications and legislation, J. Appl. Phycol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [167] Barry, L. (2008). Seaweed, Potential as a Marine Vegetable and Other Opportunities, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    221 species of algae are collected globally, 145 for human nutrition and 101 for phycocolloid production, including 125 rhodophytes, 64 phaeophytes, and 32 chlorophytes.

    “Nowadays, 221 species of algae are collected globally, from which 145 are for human nutrition and 101 for phycocolloid production. These include 125 rhodophytes, 64 phaeophytes and 32 chlorophytes [168].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [168] Ohno, 1999, World seaweed utilisation: An end-of-century summary, J. Appl. Phycol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    World production of aquatic plants, mainly marine algae, reached 30.5 Mt in 2015, with 96% (29.4 Mt) obtained through aquaculture.

    “If we focus on the world production of aquatic plants, mainly marine algae, reached 30.5 Mt in 2015. In this case the extractive processes are merely testimonial since 96% of the production (29.4 Mt) were obtained through aquaculture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The production of seaweed globally has increased over the years as well as the by-products and co-products derived from them.

    “The production of seaweed globally has increased over the years as well has consequently the by-products and co-products derived from them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The production of algae is decreasing (~5%) because of the collection of natural habitats.

    “Conversely, the production of algae is decreasing (~5%) because of the collection of natural habitats [164].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] FAO (2018). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018-Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals, FAO.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Production of algae is dominated by East and Southeast Asia, reaching 99.6% of quantity in 2010; China contributes approximately 58% of worldwide cultivated algae production by quantity.

    “The production of Algae is dominated by countries in East and Southeast Asia, reaching to 99.6% of quantity in 2010. China has the major portion of the production, contributing with approximately 58% of worldwide cultivated algae production by quantity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [165] FAO (2011). FAO Yearbook. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics 2011/FAO Annuaire, FAO.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [166] FAO (2013). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2012, FAO.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Opportunities for utilization in aquafeeds, food, feed, and nutraceuticals have presented as offering the most promising results in a reasonable period.

    “Opportunities for utilization aquafeeds, in food, feed, and nutraceuticals have presented as offering the most promising results in a reasonable period [171].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [171] McHugh, D.J. (2003). A Guide to the Seaweed Industry, FAO.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 2010, 19 million tons of aquatic plants were produced in aquaculture globally, with 99.5% of total; 99.5% of seaweed used in the world in 2010 was from aquaculture, growing 7.7% per year since the 1970s.

    “In 2010, 19 million tons of aquatic plants were produced in aquaculture globally, being sewed the largest percentage by far with 99.5% of the total. Of all the seaweed used in the world in 2010, 99.5% was prevenient from aquaculture, being a growing economy with a 7.7% per year increase since the 1970s [170].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [170] FAO (2011). World Aquaculture 2010, FAO.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Some seaweeds contain high insoluble dietary fiber.

    “Some of them contain high insoluble dietary fiber.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Seaweeds that can be consumed by humans appear as innovative resources with an interesting potential to be used as functional ingredients.

    “Seaweeds that can be consumed by humans appear as innovative resources with an interesting potential to be used as functional ingredients.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In Southeast Asia, Eucheuma algae are the principal cultivated species, used principally as a source for carrageenan obtaining.

    “Contrary, in Southeast Asia, Eucheuma algae are the principal cultivated species, used principally as a source for carrageenan obtaining.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 2015, world aquaculture production consisted of 51.9 Mt fish (68%), 16.4 Mt mollusks (21%), 7.4 Mt crustaceans (10%), and 0.9 Mt other aquatic animal species (1%).

    “according to statistics from 2015, the world aquaculture production consisted in 51.9 Mt of fish (68%), 16.4 Mt of mollusks (21%), 7.4 Mt of crustaceans (10%), and 0.9 Mt of other aquatic animal species (1%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Almost all cultured species produced in East Asia are used for human consumption, except a small amount of Japanese brown algae used for algin and iodine.

    “Almost all cultured species produced in East Asia are used for human consumption, with the exception of a small amount of Japanese brown algae that is also used as a source for the extraction of algin and iodine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
94 of 94

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Algae as food can help maintain or even improve human health.

    “In this context, algae as food can be of help to maintain or even improve human health, and there is a growing interest in new products called functional foods, which can promote such a healthy state.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Invasive algae abundance can present opportunities to give added value to these algae.

    “However, this abundance can also present opportunities. It is therefore of great interest to find possible applications to give added value to these algae.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The main use of algae is direct food applications and represents the main world market for algae.

    “The main use of algae is the one with direct food applications (“seaweed as a vegetable”). This use represents the main world market for algae.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Algae aquaculture offers advantages to ecosystems, improving coastal waters and favoring other species and the environment.

    “One fact to keep in mind is that algae aquaculture offers advantages to ecosystems, since it improves the conditions of coastal waters, favoring other species and the environment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Algae are able to take many minerals from the sea, with no substantial differences in quantity among different types of algae.

    “Another interesting property of algae is that they are able to take many minerals from the sea, with no substantial differences in the quantity among different types of algae.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Seaweeds from different locations can produce different levels of active compounds.

    “because seaweeds from different locations can produce different levels of active compounds.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Demand for algae still exceeds the supply offered by aquaculture.

    “although the demand still exceeds the supply offered by aquaculture.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Aquaculture is an environmentally friendly process.

    “since aquaculture is an environmentally friendly process”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    None of the oligo/polysaccharides from seaweeds is degraded by enzymes in the first part of the gastro-intestinal tract.

    “none of them is degraded by enzymes in the first part of the gastro-intestinal tract.”
9 of 9

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Due to their high amounts of essential nutrients, microalgal biomasses are an important food source, especially in Asian countries such as China, Japan, and Republic of Korea.

    “Due to their high amounts of essential nutrients (Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4), microalgal biomasses are an important food source, especially in Asian countries such as China, Japan, and Republic of Korea [35].”

    From Challenges in Functional Food Products with the Incorporation of Some Microalgae (2024) · cites this paper as [35]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Laminaria is classified as both green and brown algae

    Minor

    The paper calls Laminaria japonica a green alga, but elsewhere identifies Laminaria as brown algae.

  • Cyanobacteria are both excluded from algae and called microalgae

    Minor

    The paper defines algae as exclusively eukaryotic and identifies cyanobacteria as prokaryotes, but later calls cyanobacteria microalgae.

2 of 2

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 157 · Cited by 280

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Arive, 2017, In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Selected Seaweeds in the Philippines, Int. J. Theor. Appl. Sci., 9, 212
  2. Foon, 2013, Studies on in vitro antioxidant activity of marine edible seaweed from east coastal region, peninsular Malaysia using different extraction methods, Res. J. Appl. Sci., 1, 193
  3. Sohn, 1993, Porphyra, Undaria and Hizikia Cultivation in Korea, Korean J. Phycol., 8, 207
  4. Gavio, 2003, Grateloupia Turuturu (Halymeniaceae, Rhodophyta): The Correct Identity of the Invasive Species in the Atlantic Known as Grateloupia Doryphora as Inferred From Molecular and Morphological Evidence, J. Phycol., 38, 12

Authors
Gomez-Zavaglia, A., Prieto Lage, M. A., Jimenez-Lopez, C., Mejuto, J. C., & Simal-Gandara, J.
Affiliations
  • Center for Research and Development in Food Cryotechnology (CIDCA), CCT-CONICET La Plata, Calle 47 y 116, La Plata, Buenos Aires 1900, Argentina
  • Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Vigo – Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain
  • Universidade de Vigo (ES)
ORCID
Venue
Antioxidants
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-09-17
Volume
8
Issue
9
Pages
406
ISSN
2076-3921 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/antiox8090406
PMC
PMC6770939
OpenAlex
W2973464168
Semantic Scholar
9c4067de2daeebc47cca97333b73c2ce205cf6a9
Cited by
280
References
157
Citations by year
2026: 29 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 33
FWCI
2.84
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Antioxidants (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • Americanae (AECID Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Seaweed-derived Bioactive Compounds
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Microbial Metabolites in Food Biotechnology
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Marine and coastal plant biology
Keywords
seaweed, functional food ingredients, prebiotics, natural product extraction, health-promoting compounds, bioactive compounds

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

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