A critical review of interfaces with the peripheral nervous system for the control of neuroprostheses and hybrid bionic systems

In the paper

“Nowadays, the most frequent use of PNS interfaces resides in FES, which has clinical applications in various systems designed to control micturition and defecation by stimulating the sacral roots”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Discussion reports that most patients used sacral anterior root stimulators mainly for micturition. Methods and Results also reports that a few used S3 or S4 stimulation to aid defaecation. The paper does not establish that FES is the most frequent use of PNS interfaces overall. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Brindley et al., 1986 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Creasey, 1993 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Van Kerrebroeck et al., 1993 source

In the paper

“Acoustic signals increase in parallel with surface EMG signals during voluntary and evoked contraction, but acoustic amplitude decays with fatigue whereas EMG amplitude does not”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Abstract reports that acoustic amplitude decayed with fatigue while surface EMG amplitude did not, and the Figure 5 discussion describes both signals increasing together when voluntary effort increased. The copy does not establish that they increase in parallel during evoked contractions; the Discussion describes external nerve stimulation as a proposed future test. It also notes that surface EMG began to decay below 45% of maximal voluntary contraction, so the claim that EMG amplitude does not decay needs qualification. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Barry et al., 1985 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Results (page unavailable) report that vibration amplitude declines with fatigue, but also state that the evoked compound muscle action potential (CMAP) declines, though less rapidly. The discussion (page unavailable) says surface EMG amplitude typically does not decline during moderate voluntary contractions. The paper does not support the broader claim that acoustic and EMG signals increase in parallel during both types of contraction, or that electrical-signal amplitude does not decline with evoked fatigue. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Barry et al., 1992 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“After more than 10 years of development, Brindley's group reported the first 50 cases of a radio frequency-controlled implant from series production with medical approval called sacral anterior root stimulator (SARS) in humans (Brindley et al., 1986) .”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Abstract reports the first 50 human recipients of sacral anterior root stimulators; Methods and Results describes external radio transmitters, and the References include development work dating to 1972. But the printed sentence goes further: Methods and Results says the first 11 implants were made in the Neurological Prostheses Unit, not series-produced, and our copy does not establish medical approval. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Brindley et al., 1986 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The implant was commercialized as FinetechBrindley stimulator, and less than a decade later 500 patients benefited from the system (Brindley, 1994) .”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction says the 500th London-design stimulator was implanted in February 1992, and Sources of information identifies Finetech Medical Ltd as the manufacturer. The paper does not date commercialization, so it cannot establish the claimed interval of less than a decade. Its benefits discussion describes potential benefits but does not establish that all 500 patients benefited. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Brindley, 1994 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“In acute experiments, multiple-wire-microelectrode arrays were inserted into rat nerves to investigate selective stimulation of motor units (Smit et al., 1999) .”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract states that, in acute experiments, eight wire-microelectrode arrays were inserted into the rat common peroneal nerve to investigate selective stimulation of motor units in the extensor digitorum longus muscle. This directly supports the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites Smit et al., 1999 source

In the paper

“The histology of animal nerves that had metal or polymer LIFEs implanted for a period of 6 months revealed that the implants are biocompatible and that no damage was caused by the presence of the electrode, although a slight increase in connective tissue surrounding the implant site was evident in the longterm (Lefurge et al., 1991; Lawrence et al., 2002) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lefurge et al., 1991 source
• Supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Lawrence et al., 2002 source

In the paper

“The activity of embryonic spinal cord cells of mice has been recorded simultaneously over a period of several months on a planar glass substrate with 64 iridium tin oxide electrodes (Droge et al., 1986)”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Cell culture section describes recordings from embryonic mouse spinal-cord cells, and the paper describes simultaneous multisite recording. But its recording matrix had 36 gold-conductor electrodes, not 64 iridium tin oxide electrodes; the Results describe cultures examined 3–5 weeks after seeding, not recordings over several months. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Droge et al., 1986 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Different complex algorithms have been developed to extract force/torque information from sEMG signals that address these limitations, although in some cases good results have been achieved using a simple proportional control law (Gordon and Ferris, 2004)”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Virtual object interface section describes a simple proportional law: processed surface EMG amplitudes generated virtual forces, and the Discussion reports that subjects improved their control with practice. The Discussion also mentions signal-processing algorithms for myoelectric prostheses, but our copy does not say those algorithms extract force or torque from sEMG; the study's proportional forces were virtual, not measured force or torque estimates. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Gordon and Ferris, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The patients learned to open and close the hand reliably after a few minutes of practice”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Barry et al., 1986

In the paper

“Attempts to develop material surfaces that may be recognized as biological and form truly biocompatible interfaces with the tissue are under investigation, although they have yet to be integrated in functional neural interfaces.”

In the paper

“Extraneural electrodes, such as cuff and epineurial electrodes, provide simultaneous interface with many axons in the nerve”

In the paper

“However, nerve electrodes also have the potential to damage the nerves on which they are implanted, whereas muscle electrodes are generally considered as safer”

In the paper

“Signals are transmitted by the corresponding axons in series of impulses or action potentials, with intensity of the signal mainly coded in impulse frequency along the peripheral axon.”

In the paper

“Patients are able to use the system for activities of daily living and enhancing their quality of life and independency.”

In the paper

“Nerve fibers, both afferent and efferent, are grouped in fascicles surrounded by connective tissue in the peripheral nerve”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Peters et al., 1991

In the paper

“New technological developments are taking into account the fact that the most patients with nervous system injury suffer from an incomplete lesion, and thus modular, controllable systems for supporting these functions are being developed”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rupp and Gerner, 2004 source

In the paper

“Recruitment of motor units follows an order of size, with slow fatigue-resistant motor units activated first and large fast-fatigue motor units activated only at high levels of tension.”

In the paper

“The fascicular architecture changes throughout the length of the nerve, with an increasing number of fascicles of smaller size in distal with respect to proximal segments.”

In the paper

“Due to the proximity to the nerve, the stimulus intensity required for activation is reduced in comparison with muscular or surface electrodes and, consequently, hazardous electrochemical processes and power consumption of the stimulator system can be decreased”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Loeb and Peck, 1996 source

In the paper

“The perineurium is the main contributor to the tensile strength of the nerve, acts as a diffusion barrier, and maintains the endoneurial fluid pressure.”

In the paper

“intrafascicular, penetrating, and regenerative electrodes may contact small groups of axons within a nerve fascicle”

In the paper

“In general, the compatibility between a technical and a biological system (Bronzino, 1995) can be divided into the structural biocompatibility and the surface biocompatibility”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bronzino, 1995

In the paper

“In general, they offer a good signal-to-noise ratio because of their position and large surface and provide exact selectivity, namely the implanted muscle.”

In the paper

“For recording purposes, electrodes made of silver/silver chloride in the form of bars (10 -1 mm) have been found to give adequate signal-to-noise ratio.”

In the paper

“Multichannel (linear and high-density arrays) surface EMG electrodes have been developed that enable measurements of motor unit potentials size and number and provide topographical information that is beyond the capability of intramuscular needle electrodes”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zwarts and Stegeman, 2003 source

In the paper

“they can also be employed to supply a perceivable sensation to the skin or to excite nerve tracts or muscles underneath the skin”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patterson and Lockwood, 1993 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Taylor et al., 1999 source

In the paper

“Disadvantagesinclude the susceptibility to interference by environmental noise and vibrations and limited experience with its use.”

In the paper

“A final issue with percutaneous electrodes is that muscle contractions may result in eventual breakage, although these problems have become less frequent with the improvement of electrodes and lead wires”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Onishi et al., 2000 source

In the paper

“The active recording electrode should be located near but not on the motor point because at this point the stability of signals suffers from minor physical displacement of the electrode”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites De Luca, 2002

In the paper

“Further technical developments to increase sensitivity of measurements are needed before magnetic interfaces can be used for single-unit activity recordings.”

In the paper

“Although they can be used for EMG recording, the main application area is for muscle stimulation”

In the paper

“The number of electrodes to be used depends on the working application: low number of electrodes for robust use and limited functionality or high numbers for good spatial resolution and selectivity”

In the paper

“Muscle sounds have been used to measure twitch force, monitor fatigue and in the diagnosis of muscle diseases.”

In the paper

“As a control signal for externally powered prostheses, acoustic myography may present some advantages over surface EMG because it is unaffected by changes in skin impedance, less sensitive to placement on the muscle, and requires less amplification and electrical shielding.”

In the paper

“The impedance at the electrode-skin interface is largely variable between individuals at low frequencies, whereas at high frequencies the decline of impedance values with time depends on the electrode type”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hewson et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“cuff and intrafascicular electrodes can be applied to intact nerves in acute or chronic studies, whereas, by definition, regenerative sieve electrodes are implanted in transected nerves that need to regenerate across the electrode sieve over several months.”

In the paper

“These electrodes may damage many muscle fibers, but in most instances this loss will not represent a noticeable reduction in muscle force”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mortimer et al., 1980 source

In the paper

“To minimize external contamination, measurements are usually performed inside a magnetically shielded room, thus limiting its application for control of neuroprostheses.”

In the paper

“Compared with nerve cuff electrodes, intramuscular electrodes have been shown to produce more reliable, more graded, and less fatigable recruitment of motor units”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Singh et al., 2000

In the paper

“In addition, high energy consumption is required to activate the muscle.”

In the paper

“To avoid problems derived from excess charge delivery, stimulation is given in cycles, and the system is explanted once regenerating axons reinnervate the muscles of interest.”

In the paper

“This device consists of a small cylindrical capsule (16 -2 mm) whose internal components are connected to electrodes sealed hermetically into its ends.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Loeb et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“Electrode and lead failures or infections have been found to be rare and the electrode response was stable over time in patients with intramuscular or epimysial electrodes during more than 3 years”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kilgore et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“In addition, the currents required to produce contractions are high and may induce discomfort and tissue damage”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chae and Hart, 1998 source

In the paper

“Adequate EMG signals can be obtained with epimysial and intramuscular electrodes, but the fatigue of the muscle and the derived change of the recorded signal have to be taken into account for long-term use.”

In the paper

“Tests performed indicated that the BION is a stable, biocompatible, and effective electrode when implanted passively or used to stimulate muscles in experimental animals for long-term implantation (Cameron et al., 1998) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cameron et al., 1998 source

In the paper

“Management may be difficult when many epimysial electrodes on different muscles are used because of the interconnection between them, providing additional risks and possible source of failure.”

In the paper

“Their main advantage of being non-invasive and easily adaptable is counteracted by several disadvantages, such as the need for daily placement and frequent calibration, and by the low reproducibility and quality of acquired signals.”

In the paper

“Currently, recorded EMG signals are used to determine the activation time of a muscle, to estimate the force produced during muscle contraction and to estimate the rate of muscle fatigue.”

In the paper

“Capacitive electrodes such as titanium nitride might reduce the risk of corrosion under stimulation conditions, but their performance highly varies with the fabrication technology”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Janders et al., 1996
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weiland et al., 2002 source

In the paper

“For large muscles, the EMG activity mainly reflects the action potentials of motor units located more superficial or closer to the electrode.”

In the paper

“This requires the implantation and maintenance of many electrodes subjected to considerable mechanical stress caused by strong muscle contractions”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Devasahayam, 1992 source

In the paper

“The choice of an adequate electrode size and material, in combination with a 'structural compatible' design, is always a compromise between electrode impedance, signal-to-noise ratio, and selectivity.”

In the paper

“Direct muscle stimulation may be also used to recover chronically denervated muscles, although activation requires long duration pulses and extremely high current that are usually not generated by common FES devices”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kern et al., 2002 source

In the paper

“There was no gross evidence of axonal damage after 1 day, but chronic implants have not been reported.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tyler and Durand, 1997 source

In the paper

“For example, quasi-trapezoidal stimulation pulses have been shown to induce more gradual contraction than rectangular pulses, an effect that was attributed to activation of fatigue-resistant motor units before activation of large fast-fatigue units with cuff electrodes (Fang and Mortimer, 1991; Rozman et al., 1993) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fang and Mortimer, 1991 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rozman et al., 1993 source

In the paper

“The use of short pulsewidths and the introduction of a subthreshold transverse current from a steering anode allows restriction of the region of excitation of the nerve trunk, significantly improving the selectivity of stimulation (Gorman and Mortimer, 1986; Sweeney et al., 1990; Grill and Mortimer, 1996b; Navarro et al., 2001) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Gorman and Mortimer, 1986
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweeney et al., 1990 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Grill and Mortimer, 1996b

In the paper

“Although snug-fitting nerve cuffs have been advocated to reduce the stimulus charge injection or to obtain a high signal-to-noise ratio for neural recordings (Naples et al., 1990) , different studies have shown that chronic implantation of snug cuffs modifies the nerve shape and produces a loss of large nerve fibers, which are the most sensitive to compression (Krarup et al., 1989; Grill and Mort”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krarup et al., 1989 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Grill and Mortimer, 1998 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Larsen et al., 1998 source

In the paper

“Tripolar (central active electrode vs. two reference electrodes near the ends of the cuff) electrode configuration is preferred to reduce noise pickup (Stein et al., 1977) ; it provides a biophysically ideal way to use a differential amplifier to reject almost completely the large bioelectric signals arising from outside the cuff (e.g., EMG).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stein et al., 1977 source

In the paper

“Histological cross-sections showed that the SPINE rearranges the epineurium and penetrates deep within a multifascicular nerve but did not disrupt the perineurium (Tyler and Durand, 1997) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tyler and Durand, 1997 source

In the paper

“By flattening the nerve into a more elliptical shape, fascicles become more accessible and central fibers are moved closer to the stimulating electrode in comparison with cylindrical cuffs.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tyler and Durand, 2002 source

In the paper

“The first micturition because of electrical nerve root stimulation was reported in 1973 (Brindley, 1973) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Brindley, 1973

In the paper

“Postoperative infections after helicoidal electrode implants in vagus nerve patients occur in less than 3% of cases, requiring removal of the device in 1%.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McLachlan, 1997 source

In the paper

“Helicoidal electrodes, placed circumjacent to the nerve, are made of flexible platinum ribbon with an open helical design (Fig. 5), allowing the electrode to conform to the shape of the nerve and minimizing mechanical trauma (Naples et al., 1990) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Naples et al., 1990

In the paper

“Electrodes that moderately flattened the nerve demonstrated the best selectivity for limb motion measurements, which were maintained throughout the implant time (Tyler and Durand, 2003; Leventhal and Durand, 2004) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tyler and Durand, 2003 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Leventhal and Durand, 2004 source

In the paper

“The latter application is of limited benefit because it should be applied only when pain involves one nerve territory in the head or the limbs and has frequent morbidity associated with electrode approximation, electrode displacement, and lead failure (Hassenbusch et al., 1996) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hassenbusch et al., 1996 source

In the paper

“Results on acute experiments showed that it is possible to selectively activate individual fascicles of the cat sciatic nerve with the FINE, as well as groups of fibers within the fascicles, and revealed the strong dependency of selectivity on the relative locations of the fascicle and the electrode contacts (Tyler and Durand, 2002; Leventhal and Durand, 2003) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tyler and Durand, 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Leventhal and Durand, 2003 source

In the paper

“Because ventral root stimulation produces simultaneous contraction of both sphincter and detrusor muscles, voiding is achieved in brief spurts at the end of the stimulation, when the striated sphincter muscle relaxes faster than the smooth detrusor muscle.”

In the paper

“Occasional fracture of the electrode wire has been reported (McLachlan, 1997) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McLachlan, 1997 source

In the paper

“Nowadays, there are 2,000 patients worldwide that carry a urinary bladder stimulator (Rijkhoff, 2004) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rijkhoff, 2004 source

In the paper

“Epineurial electrodes are used in biomedical FES applications for breathing control by phrenic nerve stimulation (Creasey et al., 1996) , foot-drop improvement (Liberson et al., 1961) , and relief of neuropathic pain (Strege et al., 1994) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Creasey et al., 1996
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Liberson et al., 1961
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Strege et al., 1994 source

In the paper

“Chronic studies in laboratory animals with FINE implanted over 1-3 months showed that electrodes applying high reshaping force induced nerve damage, whereas those with moderate and small forces did not cause any detectable change in nerve physiology and histology.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tyler and Durand, 2003 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Leventhal and Durand, 2004 source

In the paper

“Applicability of regenerative electrodes is dependent on the success of axonal regeneration through the perforations or holes, the possibility of nerve damage from the mechanical load imposed by the electrode or from constrictive forces within the holes, and the biocompatibility of the components (Rosen et al., 1990; Navarro et al., 1996) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rosen et al., 1990 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Navarro et al., 1996 source

In the paper

“Recruitment curves for the electrode array were broader with twitch thresholds starting at much lower currents than usual for cuff electrodes.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Branner et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“An interesting study used a microelectrode to stimulate the sensory nerve of an operator to indicate contact with an object by a remote robotic hand (Shimojo et al., 2003) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Shimojo et al., 2003

In the paper

“One negative aspect was the gradual degradation of the electrode wire bundle.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Warwick et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“To decrease the number of redundant electrodes and provide access to more fascicles within the nerve, a slanted array with electrodes of varying length, ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 mm with 0.1 mm difference in length between rows of neighboring electrodes, has been developed (Branner et al., 2001) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Branner et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“Using multiple-hole silicon arrays, the researchers demonstrated axonal regeneration and even neural activity recording was demonstrated in peripheral nerves of rat, frog, and fish (Kovacs et al., 1994; Navarro et al., 1996; Bradley et al., 1997; Della Santina et al., 1997; Mensinger et al., 2000) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kovacs et al., 1994 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Navarro et al., 1996 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley et al., 1997 source

In the paper

“Activity arising from cutaneous receptors in response to stimuli has been recorded in several studies, although activity was found to be small and difficult to distinguish from the background noise in the recording (Malmstrom et al., 1998; Yoshida et al., 2000) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Malmstrom et al., 1998 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Yoshida et al., 2000 source

In the paper

“In a series of experimental and modeling studies, Rutten and colleagues concluded that an electrode separation of 120 m m was optimal for selective interfacing peripheral nerves, such as the rat peroneal”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rutten, 2002 source

In the paper

“Thus, a trade-off must be made between selectivity of stimulation and the total number of nerve fibers that can be activated; optimal selectivity requires the use of redundant electrodes in the 3D configuration (Rutten et al., 1999) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rutten et al., 1999 source

In the paper

“Microstimulation through the electrode can be used to activate single axons, although in most cases stimulation affects small groups of axons in the fascicle (Ochoa and Torebjo ¨ rk, 1983; Torebjo ¨ rk et al., 1987) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ochoa and Torebjo ¨ rk, 1983 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Torebjo ¨ rk et al., 1987

In the paper

“Regenerating axons eventually grow through the holes (Fig. 12), making it possible to record action potentials from and to stimulate individual axons or small fascicles.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Llina ´ s et al., 1973
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Edell, 1986 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kovacs et al., 1992 source

In the paper

“The subject received feedback information from force and slip sensors in a prosthetic hand and subsequently used the array to control the hand for grasping an unseen object.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Warwick et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“The stimulation properties stabilized in 80% of the electrodes over the course of the experiment, but the recorded sensory signals were not stable over time.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Branner et al., 2004 source

In the paper

“The Utah MEA is also capable of recording more effectively from more dorsal root ganglion neurons than has been achieved by conventional recording techniques, providing a more stable option for chronic implantation (Aoyagi et al., 2003) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Aoyagi et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“Ideally a one-to-one design would allow access to each individual regenerated axon grown through one hole (2-10 m m in diameter). However, this has been proved impossible; nerve regeneration fails with holes of such small size.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Edell, 1986 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rosen et al., 1990 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Navarro et al., 1996 source

In the paper

“Electrodes in the array were capable of selectively recording single-unit responses from mechanoreceptors, although only in 10-20% of the electrodes, and evoked graded recruitment of force in muscle groups in a highly selective fashion with current injections in the 1-20 m A range (Branner and Norman, 2000; Branner et al., 2001) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Branner and Norman, 2000 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Branner et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“The LIFEs offer good selectivity for stimulation (Nannini and Horch, 1991; Yoshida and Horch, 1993) and for multiunit extracellular recording (Goodall et al., 1991; McNaughton and Horch, 1994; Yoshida and Stein, 1999) , and their geometry, make them suitable for longterm implantations (Lefurge et al., 1991) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nannini and Horch, 1991 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Yoshida and Horch, 1993 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lefurge et al., 1991 source

In the paper

“The use of multistrand Kevlar LIFEs (m-polyLIFE) increases the tensile strength and signal-to-noise ratio (Lawrence et al., 2004) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lawrence et al., 2004 source

In the paper

“However, such silicon interfaces cause frequent signs of axonopathy and constitute a physical barrier that limits the elongation of regenerating axons depending on the size of the holes (Edell, 1986; Rosen et al., 1990; Navarro et al., 1996; Zhao et al., 1997) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Edell, 1986 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rosen et al., 1990 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Navarro et al., 1996 source

In the paper

“Both the recording and stimulation were stable over the 36-h-long period of the experiments.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Branner et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“Nevertheless, the loss of neurons in spiral ganglion and cochlear nucleus was found, thought to be due to difficulty with electrode insertion and chronic motion of the implants.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arts et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“A silicon-based ribbon electrode with high flexibility demonstrated successful function after chronic implantation of up to 1 year (Hetke et al., 1994) , but this interconnect cable was not designed for implants in the highly mobile somatic peripheral nerve and was too stiff and brittle for intrafascicular application (Najafi and Hetke, 1990) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hetke et al., 1994 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Najafi and Hetke, 1990 source

In the paper

“In the PNS, bioelectronic interfaces are in an early and experimental stage.”

In the paper

“Pine et al . (1994) managed to place single hippocampus cells of the rat into a 3D silicon structure, which was termed 'cultured neuron probe.' They could demonstrate that the transplanted cells inside the microcompartments retained their capacity for axonal outgrowth and that nerve action potentials could be directly recorded extracellularly from the soma of the cells.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pine et al., 1994

In the paper

“they obtained a current-free measurement of the membrane potential of a single neuron of a leech by direct coupling to the gate of a field effect transistor (FET) (Fromherz et al., 1991a)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Fromherz et al., 1991a

In the paper

“been possible to stimulate different nerve bundles and to record nerve action potentials in response to functional stimulation (Navarro et al., 1998; Ceballos et al., 2002)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Navarro et al., 1998
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ceballos et al., 2002 source

In the paper

“the formal scheme for the acquisition and analysis of EMG signals for the control of prosthetic devices is composed of several modules (Zecca et al., 2002) : (1) signal conditioning, pre-processing, and detection of onset movement (Micera et al., 1999) ; (2) feature extraction; (3) dimensionality reduction; (4) pattern recognition; and (5) off-line and on-line learning.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zecca et al., 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Micera et al., 1999 source

In the paper

“The fabrication of silicon-based interconnection cables was shown to be technologically feasible (Hetke et al., 1990; 1994)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Hetke et al., 1990; 1994

In the paper

“some time is needed for interfacing the regenerated axons, thus precluding acute experiments”

In the paper

“The presence of a polyimide-based regenerative electrode showed no chronic foreign body response, and the immunohistochemically measured pattern of characteristic proteins was comparable with a healing reaction without any implant (Klinge et al., 2001a) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Klinge et al., 2001a source

In the paper

“In this case, it is usually not possible to use the 'homologous' muscles to control the movements of the prosthetic device, and the development of a complex algorithm exploiting the potentialities of using advanced pattern recognition techniques is required.”

In the paper

“the EMG signal was modeled as the amplitude-modulated Gaussian noise whose variance is related to the force developed by the muscle.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Graupe and Cline, 1975; 1982
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Graupe et al., 1982 source

In the paper

“sEMG signals are easy to record and provide an important access to the neuromuscular system of the user.”

In the paper

“The structure's topology (e.g., the width of grooves) has an important impact on the growth of the cultured cells (Wilkinson et al., 1987; Clark et al., 1990; Connolly et al., 1992)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wilkinson et al., 1987 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark et al., 1990 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Connolly et al., 1992 source

In the paper

“Silicone elastomer is still the material of choice for encapsulation of cables and also as additional coating for hermetically sealed electronic circuits (Stieglitz et al., 2004)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stieglitz et al., 2004 source

In the paper

“Polyimide-based electrodes have been shown to be biocompatible and stable over months of in vivo implantation and allow for much better regeneration than silicon dice (Navarro et al., 1998; Ceballos et al., 2002; Lago et al., 2005) .”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Navarro et al., 1998
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ceballos et al., 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lago et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“Fromherz et al . (1991b) could demonstrate the guided growth of nerve cells from leeches on a laminin-coated substrate.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Fromherz et al., 1991b

In the paper

“One of the most logical and challenging applications of regenerative electrodes consists of their implantation in severed nerves of an amputee's limb for bidirectional interface in a feedback-controlled neuroprosthesis.”

In the paper

“Here, a piece of a rat sciatic nerve was placed into a cone of 1.5 mm length and 100-200 m mdiameter. After implantation in the brain of a rat, neurite ingrowth was observed and stable recordings were obtained over 6 months.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kennedy, 1989 source

In the paper

“Neither approach has been investigated in the PNS.”

In the paper

“Materials typically used are platinum, iridium, tungsten, and stainless steel as conductors and silicone elastomer, polytetrafluoroethylene, and polyimide as insulating carriers (Naples et al., 1990; Heiduschka and Thanos, 1998)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Naples et al., 1990
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Heiduschka and Thanos, 1998 source

In the paper

“Having surface topologies on the substrate, axonal outgrowth of embryonic nerve cells from rats was observed and electrical activity was recorded in a microstructure with 16 electrodes that were connected with grooves (Jimbo and Kawana, 1992; Jimbo et al., 1993)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jimbo and Kawana, 1992 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jimbo et al., 1993 source

In the paper

“Reinnervation of the gastrocnemius and tibialis muscles via the distal stump of the sciatic nerve was observed after a few weeks, although there was no communication with the CNS.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Katsuki et al., 1997 source

In the paper

“sensory feedback from tactile and force sensors might be provided to the user through stimulation of afferent nerve fibers within the residual limb (Riso, 1999)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Riso, 1999 source

In the paper

“but cost, technology, and limited cable length limit widespread use in neural prostheses applications”

In the paper

“The devices are robust, stable, and reliable but suffer from a low spatial resolution and low selectivity of the electrodes as well as from a quite large size.”

In the paper

“Functional regeneration was proven but the number of surviving cells tremendously decreased from the 10,000 that had been injected to some tens that finally innervated the muscle (T. Stieglitz, 2004. The neuron micro probe project, personal communication)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites T. Stieglitz, 2004. The neuron micro probe project, personal communication source

In the paper

“deterioration of the device may result in implant failure and the release of toxic products”

In the paper

“Using this approach, it was possible to control the different degrees of freedom of the shoulder reducing the muscular effort of the subjects.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Kiguchi et al., 2001; 2003

In the paper

“Neuro-fuzzy models seem the most adequate because of their model-free structure.”

In the paper

“Experimental tests have shown that the use of sEMG significantly improved the mechanical gain of the system (i.e., the possibility of augmenting capabilities and/or reducing human muscular efforts to carry out the different tasks) while maintaining natural control of the system.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rosen et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“At the moment, there is no universal best choice for all possible uses of the described interfaces”

In the paper

“Using this schemea one-degree-of-freedom exoskeleton has been controlled using a multiple-feedback approach: (1) dynamic feedback - the moments generated at the interfaces between the human arm, the external load, and the exoskeleton structure; (2) kinematic feedback -the joint angular trajectories recorded using encoders, and the angular velocity and acceleration calculated by finite differences;”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rosen et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“This approach seems promising for the development of EMG-based controlled hand prostheses although the use of EMG signals seems to be limited to prosthesis with a few degrees of freedom (probably no more than four).”

In the paper

“by using this approach, the user must initiate all the contractions to control the prosthesis from rest, making it difficult to switch from one class to another and increasing the response time of the user when dealing with unexpected situations.”