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Cited by 0Dietary Effects on HealthDiet and metabolism studiesNutrition, Health and Food Behavior

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 223 of the 223 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 138 of the 248 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: diets for body weight reduction

Open access
Aragon, Alan A., Campbell, Bill I., Schoenfeld, Brad J., Stout, Jeffrey R., Kalman, Douglas, Arciero, Paul J., Arent, Shawn M., Kreider, Richard B., Taylor, Lem W., Bannock, Laurent, Wildman, Robert E.C., Kerksick, Chad M., Antonio, Jose·2026·Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
DOI 10.1080/15502783.2026.2740266PMC PMC13665703
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Abstract

The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) has developed an official position on diets for body weight reduction. This critical analysis of the literature is intended to provide a scientific foundation for practitioners, coaches, and trainees regarding the effects of the major diet types in adults who are generally healthy, physically active, and/or athletic, while drawing from clinical research in those with overweight/obesity, when relevant. This position stand does not address acute dehydration-based weight cutting, pharmacotherapy (i.e. GLP-1RAs), or bariatric surgery. The following 15 points constitute the Position Statement of the Society; the Research Committee has approved them. 1) Diets for body weight reduction can be broadly categorized by the magnitude of the energy deficit, linearity of the deficit, and macronutrient composition. These factors need to be tailored to individual preferences, tolerances, and goals.2) Very-low-energy diets (<800 kcal/day) and low-energy diets (800-1200 kcal/day) produce greater short-term weight loss but lack long-term advantages over less aggressive energy restrictions, such as calorie-controlled diets. These aggressive diets may increase lean mass loss, although adequate protein intake and resistance training may mitigate this risk. Caution is warranted about insufficiencies in vitamins, minerals, fiber, and other nutrients.3) The evidence at-large shows a lack of differential effects between intermittent fasting variants (alternate-day fasting, time-restricted eating, and twice-weekly fasting) and continuous energy restriction on anthropometric outcomes, although macronutrient quality plays an independent role in optimizing body composition and metabolic health.4) Intra-day meal frequency (as opposed to total daily nutrition) does not tend to crucially influence body weight and body fat reduction. Meal frequency may be individualized flexibly; no lower or upper limits can universally be prescribed to optimize outcomes. However, in physically active and athletic populations, distributing protein across at least three protein-rich meals (or eating occasions) per day may optimize lean mass retention and performance during sustained energy deficits.5) Resistance training and sufficient protein intake are indispensable mitigators of lean mass loss in a sustained caloric deficit, regardless of the diet type or variant. Total daily protein is of primary importance; specific distribution of the constituent doses is a secondary concern.6) For the general population, a daily protein intake of 1.2-1.6 g/kg BW is appropriate for supporting total body weight and fat loss, physical activity, and imparting benefits to musculoskeletal and cardiometabolic health.7) Daily protein intakes ranging 1.6-2.2 g/kg BW combined with resistance training may optimize muscle anabolism, while higher intakes of 1.9-3.2 g/kg BW can maximize lean mass retention in lean, resistance-trained individuals sustaining hypocaloric conditions.8) The dietary carbohydrate‒fat proportion can be individualized to personal preference for the goal of weight loss, since the range of ketogenic to low-fat diets performs similarly.9) Ketogenic diets are effective at bodyweight and body fat reduction, but they also tend to decrease fat-free mass to a greater degree than higher-carbohydrate comparators, particularly in shorter trials where glycogen and total body water shifts can influence estimates.10) Adaptations to weight loss can be physical, physiological, and/or behavioral, and converge toward reducing energy expenditure to fulfill the body's drive toward neutralizing disruptions to homeostasis imposed by the caloric deficit.11) Adaptive thermogenesis is a reduction in resting energy expenditure beyond that predicted by changes in body composition. It can occur in response to hypocaloric conditions and weight loss, but it is not an inevitable response, and it may attenuate substantially upon attainment of weight stability.12) Metabolic adaptations that reduce energy expenditure, including adaptive thermogenesis, and impair gut microbial diversity, can often be attenuated by strategic dietary and exercise programming that foster nutrient-absorption and partitioning, and metabolic flexibility.13) A multitude of tactics can be implemented to manage and overcome plateaus. However, plateaus are also opportunities/cues to practice maintaining progress made thus far (the ultimate goal is the maintenance of a plateau).14) Guidance from an interdisciplinary team of health professionals while maintaining social support is recommended for successful weight management.15) Learning how to prepare home-cooked meals (and plan meals ahead of time through the day) puts dieters in control of their nutritional fate - and in a better position to succeed in managing their body weight and body composition.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This ISSN position stand concludes that body weight reduction is driven primarily by sustained energy deficit and adherence, while diet type and macronutrient distribution can be individualized. High-quality weight loss emphasizes lean mass preservation through resistance training and adequate protein, with intermittent fasting, meal frequency, and carbohydrate–fat ratio showing little consistent long-term advantage over continuous energy restriction.

Key findings

  • Very-low-energy diets (VLEDs; <800 kcal/day) and low-energy diets (LEDs; 800–1200 kcal/day) produce greater short-term weight loss but lack consistent long-term advantages. VLED total diet replacement phases yielded 12.4–27.2 kg loss and LED phases 6.9–7.9 kg; VLEDs plus behavioral programs produced 3.9 kg greater loss at 1 year, 1.4 kg at 2 years, and 1.3 kg at 38–60 months (no longer statistically significant). Aggressive restriction may increase lean mass loss, though adequate protein and resistance training can mitigate this.
  • Intermittent fasting variants (alternate-day fasting, time-restricted eating, twice-weekly fasting) generally produce anthropometric and cardiometabolic outcomes comparable to continuous energy restriction. A meta-analysis found fasting-based strategies had only 0.94 kg greater body weight and 1.08 kg greater fat mass reduction at 6 months, deemed not clinically significant; beyond 6 months there were no statistically significant differences. Meal frequency itself had little effect: a 15-study meta-analysis found no effect on total body weight, and removing one 2-week boxer study eliminated the apparent body-composition effect.
  • Protein is central to lean mass retention. The paper recommends 1.2–1.6 g/kg/day for the general population, 1.6–2.2 g/kg/day with resistance training to optimize muscle anabolism, and 1.9–3.2 g/kg/day to maximize lean mass retention in lean, resistance-trained individuals in hypocaloric conditions. A 54-RCT meta-analysis found higher-protein diets (20%–45% energy) produced greater weight loss, fat loss, and cardiometabolic improvements than lower-protein comparators (20%–23% energy).
  • Ketogenic diets are effective for weight and fat loss but tend to reduce fat-free mass more than higher-carbohydrate comparators. A 13-study review in physically active subjects reported body weight reduction of 2.7 vs. 0.3 kg and fat mass reduction of 2.3 vs. 0.3 kg, but fat-free mass decreased by 0.3 kg with ketogenic diets and increased by 0.7 kg in controls. A 13-RCT meta-analysis in resistance trainees found ketogenic diets reduced body weight by 3.67 kg and fat mass by 2.21 kg, but also reduced fat-free mass by 1.26 kg versus controls. Adaptive thermogenesis is measurable but often modest and substantially attenuated or absent in weight-stable conditions; a 33-study review of 2528 participants found adaptive thermogenesis in 27 studies, but it was generally smaller or non-significant in higher-quality studies.

Methods

  • ISSN position stands are invited papers: senior editors and/or the Research Committee identify a lead author or team to perform a comprehensive literature review; the draft is sent to leading scholars, revised as a consensus statement, and approved by the Research Committee and Editors as the official ISSN position.
  • A literature search was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE and Google Scholar (last search: August 7, 2026) using terms related to energy restriction, intermittent fasting (ADF, TRE, 5:2), protein intake, meal frequency/protein distribution, low-carbohydrate diets, ketogenic diets, low-fat diets, adaptive thermogenesis, and weight loss plateaus. Systematic reviews/meta-analyses and randomized controlled trials were prioritized, supplemented by controlled feeding studies and mechanistic work; reference lists were hand-searched.
  • Evidence was appraised qualitatively; no formal GRADE process was applied. Graphic summaries (Figures 1–6) accompany Sections 3–8.

Limitations

  • The paper states that no formal GRADE process was applied, and that much of the long-term weight loss literature derives from overweight/obese clinical populations; extrapolation to lean, athletic, or resistance-trained individuals should be interpreted within that specific context.
  • The paper states it does not address acute dehydration-based weight cutting, pharmacotherapy (e.g., GLP-1 receptor agonists), or bariatric surgery. It also notes that many meal-frequency trials combine higher protein intakes, structured exercise, and other co-interventions, limiting causal attribution to meal frequency per se.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative position-stand synthesis rather than a systematic review, and several cited trials have acknowledged methodological constraints, including small samples, lack of experimental control, short durations, low protein intake, or no formal exercise training (e.g., Fothergill et al., Seimon et al.).

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/15502783.2026.2740266

Cites

223 of 223 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

138 of 248 cited sources checked · 71 supported · 5 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    BMI correlates poorly with body fat percentage (BF%).

    “The critical issue with BMI is that it correlates poorly with body fat percentage (BF%) [13–15].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13] Nuttall FQ. Body mass index: obesity, BMI, and health: a critical review. Nutr Today. 2015; 50(3): 117– 128. doi: 10.1097/NT.0000000000000092 PMC4890841 27340299 source
    • cites [14] Flegal KM, Shepherd JA, Looker AC, et al. Comparisons of percentage body fat, body mass index, waist circumference, and waist-stature ratio in adults. AJCN. 2009; 89(2): 500– 508. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26847 PMC2647766 19116329 source

      The Discussion says BMI and percentage body fat were highly correlated within sex-age groups, contrary to the claim that they correlate poorly. The Results report BMI–body-fat correlations of 0.716–0.789 in men and 0.724–0.839 in women for the age groups specified. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [15] Okorodudu DO, Jumean MF, Montori VM, et al. Diagnostic performance of body mass index to identify obesity as defined by body adiposity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010; 34(5): 791– 799. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.5 20125098 source
  • Premisecitation

    Gout was the only one of the fifteen adverse effects for which men exhibited a higher prevalence.

    “Gout was the only one of the fifteen adverse effects for which men exhibited a higher prevalence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Christensen P, Meinert Larsen T, Westerterp-Plantenga M, et al. Men and women respond differently to rapid weight loss: metabolic outcomes of a multi-centre intervention study after a low-energy diet in 2500 overweight, individuals with pre-diabetes (PREVIEW). Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018; 20(12): 2840– 2851. doi: 10.1111/dom.13466 PMC6282840 30088336 source

      In Results, Table 3, gout was more prevalent in men (0.8%) than women (0.0%), but it was not the only adverse effect with a higher reported prevalence in men. Sore throat (0.6% vs 0.4%) and dizziness (2.4% vs 1.8%) were also higher in men, although those differences were not marked statistically significant. (LLM, conf=0.93)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationcitation

    Traditional concerns with high protein intakes (adverse effects on kidney, liver, and bone health) lack evidentiary support in healthy populations.

    “It is worth noting that traditional concerns with high protein intakes (i.e. adverse effects on kidney, liver, and bone health) lack evidentiary support in healthy populations [123–128].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim4 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [123] Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. A high protein diet has no harmful effects: a one-year crossover study in resistance-trained males. J Nutr Metab. 2016; 2016: 9104792. doi: 10.1155/2016/9104792 PMC5078648 27807480 source

      The Discussion reports no harmful effects on renal or hepatic function in resistance-trained young men consuming a high-protein diet, supporting the kidney and liver portions of the claim. The Methods describe blood tests but no assessment of bone health, and the Limitations caution that the small study may not apply to other populations. This paper therefore does not establish the broader claim for healthy populations or its bone-health component. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [124] Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Evans C, et al. High protein consumption in trained women: bad to the bone?. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018; 15: 6. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0210-6 PMC5793405 29434529 source

      The Background reports evidence that a high-protein diet for one year had no negative effect on kidney or liver function. The Conclusion reports no harm to bone density or content in exercise-trained women and states that there is no evidence of harm to bone health. These passages support the general concern being questioned, but the kidney and liver evidence is limited to a one-year study and this paper’s bone findings are limited to exercise-trained women, rather than healthy populations generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [125] French SJ, Kanter M, Maki KC, et al. The harms of high protein intake: conjectured, postulated, claimed, and presumed, but shown? AJCN. 2025; 122(1): 9– 16. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.05.002 40339907 source
    • cites [126] Devries MC, Sithamparapillai A, Brimble KS, et al. Changes in kidney function do not differ between healthy adults consuming Higher- compared with Lower- or normal-protein diets: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Nutr. 2018; 148(11): 1760– 1775. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxy197 PMC6236074 30383278 source

      The Introduction says no causal link between increased protein intake and kidney damage has been established in healthy people, and the Discussion says there is no evidence linking high-protein intake to kidney disease in healthy individuals. The paper does not establish the same point for liver or bone health; references to studies of calcium and bone outcomes do not substantiate that broader claim. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [127] Kim H, Lee S, Choue R. Metabolic responses to high protein diet in Korean elite bodybuilders with high-intensity resistance exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2011; 8: 10. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-8-10 PMC3142197 21722409 source

      The Discussion (Diet characteristics; page unavailable) says high-protein diets can induce metabolic acidosis and increase urinary calcium, which may adversely affect bone metabolism. The Conclusions (page unavailable) also caution that excessive protein intake could lead to negative health outcomes. Although the study did not establish kidney, liver, or bone damage in healthy populations, it does not support the blanket assertion that these concerns lack evidentiary support. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [128] Antonio J. High-protein diets in trained individuals. Res Sports Med. 2019; 27(2): 195– 203. doi: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1523167 30244609
  • Interpretationcitation

    The idea that KD is the ideal dietary solution in light of CIM lacks support from controlled, isocaloric, protein-equated diet comparisons of disparate carbohydrate-fat proportions.

    “However, this idea lacks support from controlled, isocaloric, protein-equated diet comparisons of disparate carbohydrate‒fat proportions, which consistently show no statistically significant fat loss differences between the KD and LFD groups [104,135,148,160,161].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [104] Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 16. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y PMC5470183 28630601 source

      The Ketogenic diets section (page unavailable) says that, with scant exception, controlled protein- and energy-matched comparisons found no fat-loss advantage for ketogenic diets. It does not establish the more specific claim that every KD-versus-low-fat comparison showed no statistically significant difference; its summary includes non-KD comparators and notes a slight fat-loss advantage for higher-carbohydrate, lower-fat diets. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [135] Gardner CD, Trepanowski JF, Del Gobbo LC, et al. Effect of low-fat vs low-carbohydrate diet on 12-Month weight loss in overweight adults and the association with genotype pattern or insulin secretion: the DIETFITS randomized clinical trial. J Am Med Assoc. 2018; 319(7): 667– 679. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.0245 PMC5839290 29466592 source

      The Conclusions report no significant difference in 12-month weight change, and Table 3 shows no significant between-group difference in body-fat percentage. But this trial compared healthy low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets, not a ketogenic diet and a low-fat diet under controlled, isocaloric, protein-equated conditions. The Results report different protein intakes, and the Weight Loss Intervention section says no calorie target was prescribed. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [148] Leaf A, Rothschild JA, Sharpe TM, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: ketogenic diets. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2024; 21(1): 2368167. doi: 10.1080/15502783.2024.2368167 PMC11212571 38934469
    • cites [160] Hall KD, Guo J. Obesity energetics: body weight regulation and the effects of diet composition. Gastroenterology. 2017; 152(7): 1718– 1727 e3. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052 PMC5568065 28193517 source

      In “Influence of Dietary Macronutrients on Energy Balance and Body Composition,” the paper reports a statistically significant pooled difference in body-fat loss favoring lower-fat diets (16 g/day; P < .0001), contrary to the claim that the comparisons consistently found no statistically significant difference. The authors consider the effect physiologically meaningless, but that does not make it statistically nonsignificant. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [161] Buga A, Kackley ML, Crabtree CD, et al. The effects of a 6-Week controlled, hypocaloric ketogenic diet, with and without exogenous ketone salts, on body composition responses. Front Nutr. 2021; 8: 618520. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.618520 PMC8044842 33869263
  • Premisecitation

    Hall and Guo meta-analysis of 32 controlled feeding studies found no statistically significant differences in weight loss or fat loss despite carbohydrate proportions ranging 1%-83% and dietary fat ranging 4%-84%.

    “Hall and Guo [160] conducted a meta-analysis of 32 controlled feeding studies, strictly limited to comparisons where protein and energy intake were equated between conditions. No statistically significant differences in weight loss or fat loss were detected, despite carbohydrate proportions ranging 1%–83% and dietary fat ranging 4%–84%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [160] Hall KD, Guo J. Obesity energetics: body weight regulation and the effects of diet composition. Gastroenterology. 2017; 152(7): 1718– 1727 e3. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052 PMC5568065 28193517 source

      The ‘Influence of Dietary Macronutrients’ section confirms the 32 controlled feeding studies, equal protein and calories, and the stated carbohydrate and fat ranges. But it reports a statistically significant difference in body fat loss favoring lower-fat diets (16 g/day; P < .0001), contrary to the claim that no significant fat-loss difference was detected. The reported effect was described as physiologically small; the passage does not report a pooled weight-loss result. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 104
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 30
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 4

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A network meta-analysis by Pascual et al. reported body weight reduction ranges in studies of 2-26 weeks: ADF 0.77%-12.97%, TRE 0.95%-8.60%, and TWF 1.70%-7.97%.

    “However, a recent network meta-analysis by Pascual et al. [67] reported a wider range of weight loss. In studies ranging 2–26 weeks, the body weight reduction in ADF was 0.77%–12.97%. The weight losses in the TRE and TWF were 0.95%–8.60% and 1.70%–7.97%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [67] Elortegui Pascual P, Rolands MR, Eldridge AL, et al. A meta-analysis comparing the effectiveness of alternate day fasting, the 5:2 diet, and time-restricted eating for weight loss. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2023; 31 (Suppl 1): 9– 21. doi: 10.1002/oby.23568 PMC10098946 36349432 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Zero-calorie alternate-day fasting research is scarce, but has shown good long-term tolerability and similar effectiveness as daily caloric restriction.

    “Zero-calorie ADF research is scarce, but thus far has shown good long-term tolerability [64] and similar effectiveness as daily caloric restriction [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [64] Stekovic S, Hofer SJ, Tripolt N, et al. Alternate day fasting improves physiological and molecular markers of aging in healthy, non-obese humans. Cell Metab 2019; 30(3): 462– 76 e6. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.07.016 31471173 source
    • cites [65] Catenacci VA, Pan Z, Ostendorf D, et al. A randomized pilot study comparing zero-calorie alternate-day fasting to daily caloric restriction in adults with obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2016; 24(9): 1874– 1883. doi: 10.1002/oby.21581 PMC5042570 27569118 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A sustained state of low energy availability can increase injury risk, exacerbate or foster psychological disorders, and eventually lead to relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S).

    “A sustained state of low energy availability can increase injury risk, exacerbate or foster psychological disorders, and eventually lead to a condition called relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Gallant TL, Ong LF, Wong L, et al. Low energy availability and relative energy deficiency in sport: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2025; 55(2): 325– 339. doi: 10.1007/s40279-024-02130-0 39485653 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    With caloric restriction, nutrient intake is affected, adding to nutritional insufficiencies in the diet, which over time impacts overall health and well-being.

    “Research demonstrates that, with such caloric restriction, nutrient intake is affected, adding to nutritional insufficiencies in the diet [51], which over time, impacts overall health and well-being for the individual.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Damms-Machado A, Weser G, Bischoff SC. Micronutrient deficiency in obese subjects undergoing low calorie diet. Nutr J. 2012; 11: 34. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-11-34 PMC3404899 22657586 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that some micronutrient deficiencies increased or persisted after three months on a low-calorie formula diet in obese subjects. It does not show that caloric restriction reduced nutrient intake: the formula supplied vitamins and minerals at or above general recommendations, and the authors offer several possible explanations for the deficiencies. The later claim about health and well-being is not directly supported by the intervention findings. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: For individuals on prescription medications for weight loss such as GLP-1 receptor agonists, the effect is an induction of low to very low energy intake, analogous to purposeful dieting.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In the PREVIEW study, an 8-week 810-kcal LED in 2224 overweight, prediabetic subjects, women lost less fat mass (7.09 vs. 9.33 kg) and more FFM (3.17 vs. 1.90 kg) than men.

    “A large, multi-center trial by Christensen et al. [49] (the PREVIEW study) examined the 8-week effects of an 810-kcal LED in 2224 overweight, prediabetic subjects with prediabetes, and found that compared to men, women lost less fat mass (7.09 vs. 9.33 kg) and more FFM (3.17 vs. 1.90 kg).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Christensen P, Meinert Larsen T, Westerterp-Plantenga M, et al. Men and women respond differently to rapid weight loss: metabolic outcomes of a multi-centre intervention study after a low-energy diet in 2500 overweight, individuals with pre-diabetes (PREVIEW). Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018; 20(12): 2840– 2851. doi: 10.1111/dom.13466 PMC6282840 30088336 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Lean mass loss was slightly greater in the 4:3 model (between-group difference: 1.2 kg), but there was no specific resistance training assignment in this trial, and protein intake in both groups was low (15% of total kcal; ~0.6 g/kg).

    “Lean mass loss was slightly greater in the 4:3 model (between-group difference: 1.2 kg), but there was no specific resistance training assignment in this trial, and protein intake in both groups was low (15% of total kcal; ~0.6 g/kg).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] Catenacci VA, Ostendorf DM, Pan Z, et al. The effect of 4:3 intermittent fasting on weight loss at 12 months: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 2025; 178(5): 634– 644. doi: 10.7326/ANNALS-24-01631 PMC12863240 40163873 source

      Methods > Randomization and Interventions (page unavailable) specifies a 15%-protein dietary target for both groups and a moderate-intensity aerobic activity recommendation, but no specific resistance-training assignment. Results > Body Weight and Composition (page unavailable) describes body-composition estimates as imprecise; the text does not give the claimed 1.2 kg lean-mass difference. Nor does it establish that actual protein intake in both groups was 15% of calories or approximately 0.6 g/kg. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    VLEDs combined with a behavioral program produce 3.9 kg greater weight loss at 1 year than a behavioral program alone, but this advantage decreases to 1.4 kg at 2 years and 1.3 kg at 38-60 months, with the difference no longer statistically significant at the latter time point.

    “VLEDs combined with a behavioral program produced 3.9 kg greater weight loss at 1 year than a behavioral program alone. This advantage decreased to 1.4 kg at 2 years and 1.3 kg at 38–60 months, with the difference no longer statistically significant at the latter time point.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] Parretti HM, Jebb SA, Johns DJ, et al. Clinical effectiveness of very-low-energy diets in the management of weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obes Rev. 2016; 17(3): 225– 234. doi: 10.1111/obr.12366 26775902 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Fasting has the potential to liberate large amounts of fatty acids from adipose tissue and increase expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha, thereby enhancing hepatic beta-oxidation.

    “Of particular relevance to body weight regulation, fasting has the potential to liberate large amounts of fatty acids from adipose tissue and increase the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha [60], thereby enhancing hepatic beta-oxidation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] Kersten S, Seydoux J, Peters JM, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha mediates the adaptive response to fasting. J Clin Invest. 1999; 103(11): 1489– 1498. doi: 10.1172/JCI6223 PMC408372 10359558 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A 12-month trial by Catenacci et al. reported greater weight loss with a 4:3 model (3 weekly modified fasting days; ~20% of maintenance needs) versus daily caloric restriction in adults with overweight or obesity; the between-group weight loss difference was 2.89 kg in favor of the 4:3 model.

    “Recently, a 12-month trial by Catenacci et al. [74] reported greater weight loss with a 4:3 model (3 weekly modified fasting days; ~20% of maintenance needs) versus daily caloric restriction in adults with overweight or obesity. The between-group weight loss difference was 2.89 kg in favor of the 4:3 model.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] Catenacci VA, Ostendorf DM, Pan Z, et al. The effect of 4:3 intermittent fasting on weight loss at 12 months: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 2025; 178(5): 634– 644. doi: 10.7326/ANNALS-24-01631 PMC12863240 40163873 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    In athletic populations sustaining hypocaloric conditions, limiting weekly rates of weight loss to 0.5%-1.0% of total body weight may optimize retention of lean mass, thus potentially minimizing the likelihood of the collateral fattening phenomenon.

    “In athletic populations sustaining hypocaloric conditions, limiting weekly rates of weight loss to 0.5%–1.0% of total body weight may optimize the retention of lean mass [55,56], thus potentially minimizing the likelihood of the collateral fattening phenomenon [8].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [55] Ruiz-Castellano C, Espinar S, Contreras C, et al. Achieving an optimal fat loss phase in resistance-trained athletes: a narrative review. Nutrients. 2021; 13(9): 3255. doi: 10.3390/nu13093255 PMC8471721 34579132 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [56] Helms ER, Aragon AA, Fitschen PJ. Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: nutrition and supplementation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014; 11: 20. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-20 PMC4033492 24864135 source

      In “Caloric intake for competition,” the paper recommends losing approximately 0.5–1% of body weight weekly to improve lean-body-mass retention, but frames that recommendation for bodybuilding contest preparation rather than athletic populations generally. The separate claim about collateral fattening is attached to citation [8], not this source. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [8] Dulloo AG, Miles-Chan JL, Schutz Y. Collateral fattening in body composition autoregulation: its determinants and significance for obesity predisposition. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2018; 72(5): 657– 664. doi: 10.1038/s41430-018-0138-6 PMC5945583 29559726 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A 10-week trial by Vargas-Molina et al. compared high-protein diets (2.5 g/kg) at maintenance/eucaloric balance or a slight (10%) caloric deficit in resistance-trained subjects; in the hypocaloric group, fat mass decreased (2.94 kg) to a greater degree than in the eucaloric group (1.41 kg), while both groups gained similar amounts of lean mass (1.04 kg and 0.97 kg, respectively).

    “A recent 10-week trial by Vargas-Molina et al. [120] compared high-protein diets (2.5 g/kg) at either maintenance/eucaloric balance or a slight (10%) caloric deficit in resistance-trained subjects. In the hypocaloric group, fat mass decreased (2.94 kg) to a greater degree than that in the eucaloric group (1.41 kg), while both groups gained similar amounts of lean mass (1.04 kg and 0.97 kg, respect”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [120] Vargas-Molina S, Garcia-Palumbo A, Garcia-Sillero M, et al. Comparison of two nutritional protocols in body re-composition of resistance-trained participants. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2026; 126(7): 4019– 4030. doi: 10.1007/s00421-026-06209-6 PMC13380550 41940947 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In Antonio et al., strength and exercise performance improved in both groups, with no statistically significant differences between the groups.

    “Strength and exercise performance improved in both groups, with no statistically significant differences between the groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [118] Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women--a follow-up investigation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015; 12: 39. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0100-0 PMC4617900 26500462 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The most recent position stand of the International Society of Sports Nutrition recommends 1.4-2.0 g/kg, with intakes beyond this range potentially benefiting resistance trainees in hypocaloric conditions.

    “The most recent position stand of the International Society of Sports Nutrition recommends 1.4–2.0 g/kg, with intakes beyond this range potentially benefiting resistance trainees in hypocaloric conditions [98].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [98] Jager R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 20. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8 PMC5477153 28642676 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Very-low-fat diets can facilitate statistically significant weight loss but lack significant fat loss advantages compared to higher-fat diets, particularly in the long term.

    “Despite their capability to facilitate statistically significant weight loss [132], VLFDs lack significant fat loss advantages compared to higher-fat diets, particularly in the long-term [133–135].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [132] Huang RY, Huang CC, Hu FB, et al. Vegetarian diets and weight reduction: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Gen Intern Med. 2016; 31(1): 109– 116. doi: 10.1007/s11606-015-3390-7 PMC4699995 26138004 source
    • cites [133] Gardner CD, Kiazand A, Alhassan S, et al. Comparison of the atkins, zone, ornish, and LEARN diets for change in weight and related risk factors among overweight premenopausal women: the A TO Z weight loss study: a randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc. 2007; 297(9): 969– 977. doi: 10.1001/jama.297.9.969 17341711 source
    • cites [134] de Souza RJ, Bray GA, Carey VJ, et al. Effects of 4 weight-loss diets differing in fat, protein, and carbohydrate on fat mass, lean mass, visceral adipose tissue, and hepatic fat: results from the POUNDS LOST trial. AJCN. 2012; 95(3): 614– 625. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.111.026328 PMC3278241 22258266 source
    • cites [135] Gardner CD, Trepanowski JF, Del Gobbo LC, et al. Effect of low-fat vs low-carbohydrate diet on 12-Month weight loss in overweight adults and the association with genotype pattern or insulin secretion: the DIETFITS randomized clinical trial. J Am Med Assoc. 2018; 319(7): 667– 679. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.0245 PMC5839290 29466592 source

      The Secondary Outcomes section reports no significant difference in body-fat percentage between the diets at 12 months, supporting the comparison cited in [133–135]. But participants in the healthy low-fat group obtained a mean 29% of energy from fat at 12 months; the paper does not establish the same finding for very-low-fat diets. The separate claim about statistically significant weight loss is attached to [132], not this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Although intermittent fasting variants largely lack anthropometric or clinical advantages over continuous energy restriction, each variant has consistently shown effectiveness as an ad libitum approach.

    “Although IF variants largely lack anthropometric or clinical advantages over CER, each of the IF variants has consistently shown effectiveness as an ad libitum approach [58].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ. Does timing matter? A narrative review of intermittent fasting variants and their effects on bodyweight and body composition. Nutrients. 2022; 14(23): 5022. doi: 10.3390/nu14235022 PMC9736182 36501050 source

      The Executive Summary (section 4; page not provided) says IF variants generally perform similarly to daily caloric restriction for weight and fat loss and cardiometabolic health. It describes ADF, TWF, and TRE as allowing ad libitum eating, but the TRE discussion (section 3.1; page not provided) reports an ad libitum trial with no significant fat loss. Thus, the claim that every variant has consistently been effective as an ad libitum approach overstates the review. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A large systematic review and meta-analysis by Vogtschmidt et al. of 54 RCTs found that higher-protein diets (20%-45% of total energy) resulted in greater weight loss, fat loss, and improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors than lower-protein comparator diets (20%-23% of total energy).

    “Illustrating this, a large systematic review and meta-analysis by Vogtschmidt et al. [97], which included 54 RCTs found that higher-protein diets (20%–45% of total energy) resulted in greater weight loss, fat loss, and improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors (systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and insulin) than lower-protein comparator diets (20%–23% of total energy).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [97] Vogtschmidt YD, Raben A, Faber I, et al. Is protein the forgotten ingredient: effects of higher compared to lower protein diets on cardiometabolic risk factors. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Atherosclerosis. 2021; 328: 124– 135. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2021.05.011 34120735 source

      The Study selection process reports 54 RCTs, and the Abstract reports small favourable effects on weight loss, fat mass loss, systolic blood pressure, some lipid outcomes and insulin. Study characteristics gives the higher-protein range as 20–45% of energy, but the lower-protein range as 10–23%, not the claimed 20–23%. (LLM, conf=0.92)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Potential mechanisms of the non-adipogenic effects of very high protein intakes are not fully understood, but may include increased satiety, increased energy expenditure through exercise- and non-exercise-mediated pathways, decreased de novo lipogenesis, under-reporting of actual protein intakes, or other factors.

    “Potential mechanisms of these results are not fully understood, but may include increased satiety, which drives lower intakes of non-protein macronutrients, increased energy expenditure through exercise- and non-exercise-mediated pathways, decreased de novo lipogenesis, and under-reporting of actual protein intakes, or other factors [104].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [104] Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 16. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y PMC5470183 28630601 source

      The High-protein diets section (page unavailable) proposes increased satiety, exercise and non-exercise energy expenditure, and suppressed hepatic lipogenesis as possible explanations for the results. It also mentions possible misreporting of energy intake, but does not specify under-reporting of protein intake. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A 4-week trial by Longland et al. compared protein intake of 1.2 vs 2.4 g/kg in overweight and obese subjects in hypocaloric conditions (40% below maintenance); the lower-protein group's lean mass was unchanged and fat mass was reduced (3.5 kg), while the higher-protein group's fat mass reduced to an even greater degree (4.8 kg) while gaining lean mass.

    “Subsequently, a 4-week trial by Longland et al. [119] compared a protein intake of 1.2 vs 2.4 g/kg in overweight and obese subjects in hypocaloric conditions (40% below maintenance caloric needs). The lower-protein group’s lean mass was unchanged, and the fat mass was reduced (3.5 kg). In the higher protein group, fat mass reduced to an even greater degree (4.8 kg), while gaining lean mass”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119] Longland TM, Oikawa SY, Mitchell CJ, et al. Higher compared with lower dietary protein during an energy deficit combined with intense exercise promotes greater lean mass gain and fat mass loss: a randomized trial. AJCN. 2016; 103(3): 738– 746. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.115.119339 26817506 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In Antonio et al., both groups gained 1.5 kg of lean mass, but the high-protein group lost more fat mass (1.6 vs 0.3 kg in the control group).

    “Both groups gained 1.5 kg of lean mass, but the high-protein group lost more fat mass (1.6 vs 0.3 kg in the control group).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [118] Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women--a follow-up investigation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015; 12: 39. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0100-0 PMC4617900 26500462 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The data on very-low-fat diets are limited, largely consisting of vegan and vegetarian diets that aggressively restrict fat intake.

    “The data on VLFDs are limited, largely consisting of vegan and vegetarian diets that aggressively restrict fat intake [104].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [104] Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 16. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y PMC5470183 28630601 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The current RDA for protein (0.8 g/kg/day) is generally sufficient for basic protein requirements of healthy, sedentary adults, but is unlikely to be optimal and may be insufficient for preserving or maximizing lean mass and optimizing body composition in many populations and physiological states, particularly during exercise training, aging, and energy restriction.

    “The current RDA for protein (0.8 g/kg/day), while generally sufficient to meet the basic protein requirements of healthy, sedentary adults, is unlikely to be optimal – and may be insufficient for preserving or maximizing lean mass and optimizing body composition – in many populations and physiological states, particularly during exercise training, aging, and energy restriction [98–104].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim5 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [98] Jager R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 20. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8 PMC5477153 28642676 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [99] Phillips SM, Chevalier S, Leidy HJ. Protein “requirements” beyond the RDA: implications for optimizing health. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016; 41(5): 565– 572. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2015-0550 26960445 source
    • cites [100] Aragon AA, Tipton KD, Schoenfeld BJ. Age-related muscle anabolic resistance: inevitable or preventable? Nutr Rev. 2023; 81(4): 441– 454. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuac062 36018750
    • cites [101] Nunes EA, Colenso-Semple L, McKellar SR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of protein intake to support muscle mass and function in healthy adults. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2022; 13(2): 795– 810. doi: 10.1002/jcsm.12922 PMC8978023 35187864 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [102] Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med. 2018; 52(6): 376– 384. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608 PMC5867436 28698222 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [103] Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. American college of sports Medicine joint position statement. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016; 48(3): 543– 568. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000852 26891166
    • cites [104] Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 16. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y PMC5470183 28630601 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    In an 8-week trial by Antonio et al., the high-protein group (3.4 g/kg) reported a 374-kcal increase from baseline, but fat loss-dominant recomposition occurred.

    “A salient example of apparently protein-driven recomposition was by Antonio et al. [118], who compared the effects of normal/habitual protein intake (2.3 g/kg) versus high protein intake (3.4 g/kg) on body composition and performance in resistance-trained subjects. The 8-week trial involved a periodized, progressive resistance training program with sessions occurring 5 days/week. Despite the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [118] Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women--a follow-up investigation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015; 12: 39. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0100-0 PMC4617900 26500462 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Bueno et al. 13-RCT meta-analysis compared KDs with LFDs in trials lasting a minimum of 12 months; although KD resulted in statistically greater weight loss than LFD, the absolute difference was relatively minor (0.91 kg) and was no longer apparent at 24 months.

    “A 13-RCT meta-analysis by Bueno et al. [167] compared KDs with LFDs in trials lasting a minimum of 12 months. Although KD resulted in statistically greater weight loss than LFD, the absolute difference was relatively minor (0.91 kg) and was no longer apparent at 24 months.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [167] Bueno NB, de Melo IS, de Oliveira SL, et al. Very-low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet v. Low-fat diet for long-term weight loss: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2013; 110(7): 1178– 1187. doi: 10.1017/S0007114513000548 23651522 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses over the past decade have unanimously shown that low-carbohydrate diets produce superior weight loss to low-fat diets, with mean differences ranging 1.01-2.64 kg.

    “Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses over the past decade have examined the effects of LCDs, unanimously showing superior weight loss to LFDs [136,138–145], with mean differences ranging 1.01–2.64 kg.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim7 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [136] Chawla S, Tessarolo Silva F, Amaral Medeiros S, et al. The effect of low-fat and low-carbohydrate diets on weight loss and lipid levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12): 3774. doi: 10.3390/nu12123774 PMC7763365 33317019 source

      The Results (§3.2) report greater overall weight loss with low-carbohydrate diets (mean difference 1.00 kg) and a significant advantage at 6–12 months (1.30 kg). The Discussion says several earlier meta-analyses found a similar benefit, but this paper does not establish that reviews unanimously found superior weight loss or support the stated 1.01–2.64 kg range; its differences were not statistically significant at other follow-up periods. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [138] Tobias DK, Chen M, Manson JE, et al. Effect of low-fat diet interventions versus other diet interventions on long-term weight change in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015; 3(12): 968– 979. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00367-8 PMC4667723 26527511 source
    • cites [139] Sackner-Bernstein J, Kanter D, Kaul S. Dietary intervention for overweight and obese adults: comparison of low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets. A meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015; 10(10): e0139817. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139817 PMC4618935 26485706 source
    • cites [140] Mansoor N, Vinknes KJ, Veierod MB, et al. Effects of low-carbohydrate diets v. Low-fat diets on body weight and cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2016; 115(3): 466– 479. doi: 10.1017/S0007114515004699 26768850 source

      The Abstract (p. 1) reports 2.17 kg greater weight loss with low-carbohydrate diets, which falls within the claimed range. But the introduction (p. 2) describes a lack of consensus among previous meta-analyses; this paper does not establish that reviews unanimously found superior weight loss or document the stated 1.01–2.64 kg range. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [141] Hashimoto Y, Fukuda T, Oyabu C, et al. Impact of low-carbohydrate diet on body composition: meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. Obes Rev. 2016; 17(6): 499– 509. doi: 10.1111/obr.12405 27059106 source
    • cites [142] Lei L, Huang J, Zhang L, et al. Effects of low-carbohydrate diets versus low-fat diets on metabolic risk factors in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Nutr. 2022; 9: 935234. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.935234 PMC9397119 36017224 source

      The Results section (weight loss; page not provided) reports greater overall weight loss with low-carbohydrate diets than with low-fat diets (WMD −1.33 kg), within the claimed range. But it reports no difference at 24 months and does not establish that the cited reviews unanimously found superiority or that their mean differences spanned 1.01–2.64 kg. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [143] Silverii GA, Cosentino C, Santagiuliana F, et al. Effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets for long-term weight loss in obese individuals: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2022; 24(8): 1458– 1468. doi: 10.1111/dom.14709 PMC9546386 35373905 source

      The Results (Weight loss; page not provided) report greater weight loss with low-carbohydrate diets at 3–4 and 6–8 months, including a mean difference of 2.64 kg. But the comparison was with non-carbohydrate-restricted diets, not specifically low-fat diets, and the advantage was not significant at later time points. The copy does not establish unanimous findings across reviews or the lower end of the stated 1.01–2.64 kg range. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [144] Yang Q, Lang X, Li W, et al. The effects of low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets vs. Low-carbohydrate, high-fat diets on weight, blood pressure, serum liquids and blood glucose: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2022; 76(1): 16– 27. doi: 10.1038/s41430-021-00927-0 34168293 source
    • cites [145] Feng S, Liu R, Thompson C, et al. Effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets and macronutrient replacements on cardiovascular health and body composition in adults: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. AJCN. 2025; 122(5): 1461– 1478. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.09.012 PMC12799388 40935153 source

      The Results (Subgroup analyses: macronutrient composition; page unavailable) report reductions in body weight with carbohydrate-restricted diets, and the Discussion says stricter diets produced greater weight loss. But the Introduction describes prior findings as inconsistent, including studies with no significant body-weight improvement. The paper does not establish that reviews unanimously found low-carbohydrate diets superior to low-fat diets or report the claimed 1.01–2.64 kg range. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A systematic review and meta-analysis of 33 RCTs by Lei et al. found that low-carbohydrate diets statistically reduced body weight at 6-23 months (mean difference of −1.33 kg), but no statistically significant difference was observed at 24 months.

    “Furthermore, in a systematic review and meta-analysis of 33 RCTs, Lei et al. [142] found that LCDs statistically reduced body weight at 6–23 months (mean difference of −1.33 kg), but no statistically significant difference was observed at 24 months.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [142] Lei L, Huang J, Zhang L, et al. Effects of low-carbohydrate diets versus low-fat diets on metabolic risk factors in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Nutr. 2022; 9: 935234. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.935234 PMC9397119 36017224 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A systematic review and meta-analysis of 25 RCTs by Silverii et al. reported that, compared to control diets, low-carbohydrate diets statistically reduced body weight at 3-4 and 6-8 months, but the difference was no longer statistically significant at 10-14 and 18-30 months.

    “In a systematic review and meta-analysis of 25 RCTs, Silverii et al. [143] reported that, compared to control diets, LCDs statistically reduced body weight at 3–4 and 6–8 months, but the difference was no longer statistically significant at 10–14 and 18–30 months.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [143] Silverii GA, Cosentino C, Santagiuliana F, et al. Effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets for long-term weight loss in obese individuals: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2022; 24(8): 1458– 1468. doi: 10.1111/dom.14709 PMC9546386 35373905 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A large 61-RCT systematic review by Naude et al. reported that in trials lasting 3 to <12 months, the average difference in weight loss between low-carbohydrate diets and control diets was 1 kg, and in trials lasting 12 months or more, the average difference was less than 1 kg.

    “Continuing these findings, a large (61-RCT) systematic review by Naude et al. [147] reported that in trials lasting 3 to < 12 months, the average difference in weight loss between LCDs and control diets was 1 kg, and in trials lasting 12 months or more, the average difference was less than 1 kg.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [147] Naude CE, Brand A, Schoonees A, et al. Low-carbohydrate versus balanced-carbohydrate diets for reducing weight and cardiovascular risk. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022; 1(1): CD013334. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013334.pub2 PMC8795871 35088407 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In DIETFITS, carbohydrate intakes at 12 months in the carbohydrate-restricted and fat-restricted groups were 132.4 g and 212.9 g, respectively; fat intakes at 12 months were 86.2 g and 57.3 g, respectively.

    “Carbohydrate intakes at 12 months in the carbohydrate-restricted and fat-restricted groups were 132.4 g and 212.9 g, respectively. Fat intakes at 12 months were 86.2 g and 57.3 g, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [135] Gardner CD, Trepanowski JF, Del Gobbo LC, et al. Effect of low-fat vs low-carbohydrate diet on 12-Month weight loss in overweight adults and the association with genotype pattern or insulin secretion: the DIETFITS randomized clinical trial. J Am Med Assoc. 2018; 319(7): 667– 679. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.0245 PMC5839290 29466592 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In the 12-month DIETFITS trial by Gardner et al., the low-carbohydrate and low-fat groups showed moderate reductions in body weight (5.29 and 5.99 kg, respectively), with no statistically significant between-group differences.

    “At 12 months, the low-carbohydrate and low-fat groups showed moderate reductions in body weight (5.29 and 5.99 kg, respectively), with no statistically significant between-group differences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [135] Gardner CD, Trepanowski JF, Del Gobbo LC, et al. Effect of low-fat vs low-carbohydrate diet on 12-Month weight loss in overweight adults and the association with genotype pattern or insulin secretion: the DIETFITS randomized clinical trial. J Am Med Assoc. 2018; 319(7): 667– 679. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.0245 PMC5839290 29466592 source

      Table 3 reports 12-month weight reductions of 5.29 kg in the healthy low-fat group and 5.99 kg in the healthy low-carbohydrate group—the reverse of the claim’s group assignments. The Primary Outcome section confirms that the between-group difference was not statistically significant. (LLM, conf=0.94)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Martins et al. subsequent analysis found that AT after weight loss (~12 kg via 800 kcal/day diet) was −46 kcal, and estimated that each 10-kcal/day increase in AT delayed the time to reach weight loss goals by one day.

    “A subsequent analysis by Martins et al. [202] included the previous plus another study and found that AT after weight loss (~12 kg via 800 kcal/day diet) was −46 kcal, and estimated that each 10-kcal/day increase in AT delayed the time to reach weight loss goals by one day.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [202] Martins C, Gower BA, Hunter GR. Metabolic adaptation delays time to reach weight loss goals. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2022; 30(2): 400– 406. doi: 10.1002/oby.23333 PMC8852805 35088553 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Physical adaptations to weight loss refer to the increased efficiency and lower energetic cost of movement (in both exercise and non-exercise activity) in a body with less mass than before.

    “Physical adaptations to weight loss refer to the increased efficiency and lower energetic cost of movement (in both exercise and non-exercise activity) in a body with less mass than before [176].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [176] Most J, Redman LM. Impact of calorie restriction on energy metabolism in humans. Exp Gerontol. 2020; 133: 110875. doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2020.110875 PMC9036397 32057825 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Martin et al. secondary analysis of CALERIE: over 12 months of caloric restriction (25% deficit) in 109 subjects, ~11% weight loss (8 kg) reduced RMR by ~100 kcal (~7%); only 60% of the reduction in RMR (60 kcal/day) could be explained by losses of metabolically active tissues (lean mass and fat mass), while the remaining 40% (40 kcal/day) was due to metabolic adaptations correlated with

    “Martin et al. [187] conducted a secondary analysis of the CALERIE study [188]. Body composition and metabolic changes were examined over 12 months of caloric restriction (25% deficit) in 109 subjects. As a result of ~11% weight loss (8 kg), the RMR was reduced by ~100 kcal (~7%) in healthy normal weight and overweight subjects. The intriguing finding was that only 60% of the reduction in RMR (60”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [187] Martin A, Fox D, Murphy CA, et al. Tissue losses and metabolic adaptations both contribute to the reduction in resting metabolic rate following weight loss. Int J Obes (Lond). 2022; 46(6): 1168– 1175. doi: 10.1038/s41366-022-01090-7 PMC9151388 35181758 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [188] Kraus WE, Bhapkar M, Huffman KM, et al. 2 years of calorie restriction and cardiometabolic risk (CALERIE): exploratory outcomes of a multicentre, phase 2, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019; 7(9): 673– 683. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30151-2 PMC6707879 31303390 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    A subsequent "settling point" theory evolved based on the possibility of "settling" into a new body weight, on the basis of changing lifestyle and habits.

    “While this might help explain the high rate of weight regain among dieters, a subsequent “settling point” theory evolved based on the possibility of “settling” into a new body weight, on the basis of changing lifestyle and habits [219].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [219] Speakman JR, Levitsky DA, Allison DB, et al. Set points, settling points and some alternative models: theoretical options to understand how genes and environments combine to regulate body adiposity. Dis Model Mech. 2011; 4(6): 733– 745. doi: 10.1242/dmm.008698 PMC3209643 22065844 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Fothergill et al. examined metabolic effects of substantial weight loss in Biggest Loser competitors: weight loss at end of 30-week competition averaged 58.3 kg, measured REE was lower than predicted (−275 kcal), indicating significant AT; at 6-year follow-up, subjects regained 88.4% of body weight, and AT was ever greater (−499 kcal).

    “This presumption has received reinforcement from the findings of Fothergill et al. [200], who examined the metabolic effects of substantial weight loss in competitors in the televised Biggest Loser competition. Weight loss at the end of the 30-week competition averaged 58.3 kg, at which point the measured REE was lower than the predicted REE (−275 kcal), indicating significant AT. At the 6-year”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [200] Fothergill E, Guo J, Howard L, et al. Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after "The biggest Loser" competition. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2016; 24(8): 1612– 1619. doi: 10.1002/oby.21538 PMC4989512 27136388 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    AT is commonly cited as a 10%-15% reduction beyond predicted reductions in REE, but the current evidence shows that this may be a significant overestimation, especially in weight-stable conditions.

    “AT is commonly cited as a 10%–15% reduction beyond predicted reductions in REE [194], but the current evidence shows that this may be a significant overestimation, especially in weight-stable conditions [195,196].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [194] Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL. Adaptive thermogenesis in humans. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010; 34 (Suppl 1): S47– 55. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.184 PMC3673773 20935667 source

      The Introduction reports a 10–15% reduction below predicted values in total energy expenditure during reduced-weight maintenance, supporting the figure but not its attribution to REE. It separately says REE reductions account for about 10–15% of the decline in total energy expenditure in some studies, while other studies find no REE change. The later claim about overestimation is attached to other citations, not this source. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [195] Nunes CL, Casanova N, Francisco R, et al. Does adaptive thermogenesis occur after weight loss in adults? A systematic review. Br J Nutr. 2022; 127(3): 451– 469. doi: 10.1017/S0007114521001094 33762040 source
    • cites [196] Martins C, Roekenes J, Salamati S, et al. Metabolic adaptation is an illusion, only present when participants are in negative energy balance. AJCN. 2020; 112(5): 1212– 1218. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqaa220 PMC7657334 32844188 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Jin et al. systematic review and meta-analysis examined appetite-related gut hormone changes after weight loss; average weight loss of 6%-7% was associated with increased ghrelin and decreased peptide YY (PYY) and GLP-1.

    “A systematic review and meta-analysis by Jin et al. [189] examined appetite-related gut hormone changes after weight loss. An average weight loss of 6%–7% was observed across studies, and this loss was associated with increased ghrelin and decreased peptide YY (PYY) GLP-1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [189] Jin Z, Li J, Thackray AE, et al. Fasting appetite-related gut hormone responses after weight loss induced by calorie restriction, exercise, or both in people with overweight or obesity: a meta-analysis. Int J Obes (Lond). 2025; 49(5): 776– 792. doi: 10.1038/s41366-025-01726-4 PMC12095072 39929932 source

      The Results (Search results) report average weight losses of 6% in RCTs and 7% in non-RCTs. The Abstract (Results) reports increased total ghrelin, but decreased PYY and active GLP-1 only in non-RCTs; the Discussion says total GLP-1 did not change and PYY findings varied. The claim omits those distinctions and makes the hormone pattern sound general across studies. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The 4 components of total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) and their proportional contributions are: TEF 8%-15%, EAT 15%-30%, NEAT 15%-50%, REE 60%-70%.

    “The 4 components of total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) and their proportional contributions are as follows [104]: 1)Thermic effect of food (TEF): 8%–15%2)Exercise activity thermogenesis (EAT): 15%–30%3)Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT): 15%–50%4)Resting energy expenditure (REE): 60%–70%”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [104] Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 16. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y PMC5470183 28630601 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The primary metabolic adaptation to hypoenergetic balance is a decrease (not an increase) in energy expenditure, hence the proposal in a previous publication to re-name this phenomenon adaptive thermoreduction.

    “The primary metabolic adaptation to hypoenergetic balance is a decrease (not an increase) in energy expenditure, hence the proposal in a previous publication to re-name this phenomenon adaptive thermoreduction [104].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [104] Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 16. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y PMC5470183 28630601 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Very-low-energy diets (<800 kcal/day) and low-energy diets (800-1200 kcal/day) produce greater short-term weight loss but lack long-term advantages over less aggressive energy restrictions, such as calorie-controlled diets.

    “Very-low-energy diets (<800 kcal/day) and low-energy diets (800–1200 kcal/day) produce greater short-term weight loss but lack long-term advantages over less aggressive energy restrictions, such as calorie-controlled diets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Ketogenic diets are effective at bodyweight and body fat reduction, but they also tend to decrease fat-free mass to a greater degree than higher-carbohydrate comparators, particularly in shorter trials where glycogen and total body water shifts can influence estimates.

    “Ketogenic diets are effective at bodyweight and body fat reduction, but they also tend to decrease fat-free mass to a greater degree than higher-carbohydrate comparators, particularly in shorter trials where glycogen and total body water shifts can influence estimates.”
    • Also stated in: § Summary and conclusions · plain
      “Ketogenic diets are highly effective at body weight reduction, but they also tend to decrease fat-free mass to a greater degree (particularly in shorter trials where glycogen and total body water shifts can influence estimates) than higher-carbohydrate comparators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Total daily protein is of primary importance; specific distribution of the constituent doses is a secondary concern.

    “Total daily protein is of primary importance; specific distribution of the constituent doses is a secondary concern.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from overweight/obese clinical populations can be extrapolated to healthy, physically active, and/or athletic adults when the evidence base is primarily clinical.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Macronutrient quality plays an independent role in optimizing body composition and metabolic health.

    “although macronutrient quality plays an independent role in optimizing body composition and metabolic health.”
    • Also stated in: § Position of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) · plain
      “although macronutrient quality plays an independent role in optimizing body composition and metabolic health.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from overweight/obese clinical populations can be extrapolated to healthy, physically active, and/or athletic adults when the evidence base is primarily clinical.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    For the general population, a daily protein intake of 1.2-1.6 g/kg BW is appropriate for supporting total body weight and fat loss, physical activity, and imparting benefits to musculoskeletal and cardiometabolic health.

    “For the general population, a daily protein intake of 1.2–1.6 g/kg BW is appropriate for supporting total body weight and fat loss, physical activity, and imparting benefits to musculoskeletal and cardiometabolic health.”
    • Also stated in: § Position of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) · plain
      “For the general population, a daily protein intake of 1.2–1.6 g/kg BW is appropriate for supporting total body weight and fat loss, physical activity, and imparting benefits to musculoskeletal and cardiometabolic health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from overweight/obese clinical populations can be extrapolated to healthy, physically active, and/or athletic adults when the evidence base is primarily clinical.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Much of the long-term weight loss literature derives from overweight/obese clinical populations, and extrapolation to lean, athletic, or resistance-trained individuals should be interpreted within that specific context.

    “Much of the long-term weight loss literature derives from overweight/obese clinical populations. Extrapolation to lean, athletic, or resistance-trained individuals should be interpreted within that specific context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    VLEDs and LEDs produce substantial and rapid weight loss, with VLEDs generally producing greater short-term weight loss than less aggressive energy restriction.

    “VLEDs and LEDs produce substantial and rapid weight loss, with VLEDs generally producing greater short-term weight loss than does less aggressive energy restriction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Weight regain is common following VLEDs, and differences in weight loss compared with less aggressive energy restriction are substantially attenuated with longer-term follow-up.

    “Weight regain is common following VLEDs, and differences in weight loss compared with less aggressive energy restriction are substantially attenuated with longer-term follow-up.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The evidence was appraised qualitatively (no formal GRADE process was applied).

    “The evidence was appraised qualitatively (no formal GRADE process was applied).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    For elite wrestlers, gradual weight loss was not associated with reductions in isokinetic peak torque and was accompanied by reduced body fat and preserved lean mass.

    “For elite wrestlers, Miranda et al. [54] found that gradual weight loss was not associated with reductions in isokinetic peak torque and was accompanied by reduced body fat and preserved lean mass.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Miranda KA, Gheller RG, IM DAS, et al. Effects of gradual weight loss on strength levels and body composition in wrestlers athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2021; 61(3): 401– 406. doi: 10.23736/S0022-4707.20.11254-4 33092323 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The collective evidence suggests that healthy BF% targets for men and women are approximately 11%-22% and 20%-35%, respectively.

    “The collective evidence therefore suggests that healthy BF% targets for men and women are approximately 11%–22% and 20%–35%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Collectively, VLEDs and LEDs result in weight losses of 10%-15%, with typical losses of 10-16 kg.

    “Collectively, VLEDs and LEDs result in weight losses of 10%–15%, with typical losses of 10–16 kg [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Brown A, Leeds AR. Very low-energy and low-energy formula diets: effects on weight loss, obesity co-morbidities and type 2 diabetes remission – an update on the evidence for their use in clinical practice. Nutr Bull. 2019; 44(1): 7– 24. doi: 10.1111/nbu.12372

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    BMI has utility as a screening tool at the population level, but its utility for assessing health/fitness at the individual level is limited.

    “Although BMI has utility as a screening tool at the population level, its utility for assessing health/fitness at the individual level is limited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In another network meta-analysis, Ma et al. found superior weight loss with alternate-day fasting compared to continuous energy restriction, but fat mass changes were similar across intermittent fasting variants.

    “In another recent network meta-analysis, Ma et al. [68] also found superior weight loss with ADF compared to CER, but fat mass changes were similar across the IF variants (ADF, TWF, and TRE).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] Ma Y, Sun L, Mu Z. Network meta-analysis of three different forms of intermittent energy restrictions for overweight or obese adults. Int J Obes (Lond). 2024; 48(1): 55– 64. doi: 10.1038/s41366-023-01416-z 37980382 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Additional potential adverse effects of VLEDs include gallstones, hypotension, cold intolerance, and hair loss.

    “Additional potential adverse effects include gallstones [48], hypotension [46], cold intolerance, and hair loss [44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [48] Delbridge E, Proietto J. State of the science: VLED (Very Low Energy Diet) for obesity. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2006; 15 Suppl: 49– 54. 16928661
    • cites [46] Ahmed W, Flynn MA, Alpert MA. Cardiovascular complications of weight reduction diets. Am J Med Sci. 2001; 321(4): 280– 284. doi: 10.1097/00000441-200104000-00007 11307868
    • cites [44] Tsai AG, Wadden TA. The evolution of very-low-calorie diets: an update and meta-analysis. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006; 14(8): 1283– 1293. doi: 10.1038/oby.2006.146 16988070 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    More aggressive energy restriction may increase the risk of lean-mass loss, particularly in lean individuals, although adequate protein intake and resistance training can mitigate this risk.

    “More aggressive energy restriction may increase the risk of lean-mass loss, particularly in lean individuals, although adequate protein intake and resistance training can mitigate this risk.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In elite athletes, slow (0.7% per week) versus fast (1.4% per week) weight loss resulted in statistically similar fat mass decrease, but lean mass increased in the slow condition and remained unchanged in the fast condition.

    “Another trial in this context by Garthe et al. [53] compared the effects of slow (0.7% per week) versus fast (1.4% per week) weight loss in elite athletes in a mix of sports. The results indicated that fat mass decreased to a statistically similar magnitude in both groups, but lean mass increased in the slow weight loss condition, and remained unchanged in the fast weight loss condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Garthe I, Raastad T, Refsnes PE, et al. Effect of two different weight-loss rates on body composition and strength and power-related performance in elite athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2011; 21(2): 97– 104. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.21.2.97 21558571 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The greater short-term weight loss with VLEDs may provide clinical utility when substantial weight reduction is desired over a relatively short period, particularly in individuals with obesity.

    “This may provide clinical utility when substantial weight reduction is desired over a relatively short period, particularly in individuals with obesity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    VLEDs produce greater short-term weight loss than LEDs (16.1% vs 9.7%), but there is no statistically significant difference in long-term weight loss between the diet types (6.3% vs 5.0%).

    “reported greater short-term weight loss with VLEDs (16.1%) versus LEDs (9.7%), but there was no statistically significant difference in the long-term weight loss between the diet types (6.3% vs 5.0%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Tsai AG, Wadden TA. The evolution of very-low-calorie diets: an update and meta-analysis. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006; 14(8): 1283– 1293. doi: 10.1038/oby.2006.146 16988070 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Systematic reviews/meta-analyses and randomized controlled trials were prioritized when available, supplemented by controlled feeding studies and relevant mechanistic work.

    “Systematic reviews/meta-analyses and randomized controlled trials were prioritized when available, supplemented by controlled feeding studies and relevant mechanistic work.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Aggressive caloric deficits raise the risk of lean mass loss, and among intermittent fasting variants, alternate-day fasting may be the least conducive to lean mass preservation, especially in normal-weight or lean individuals.

    “Aggressive caloric deficits raise the risk of lean mass loss, and among the IF variants, ADF may be the least conducive to lean mass preservation (especially in normal-weight or lean individuals).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Gradual weight loss resulted in modestly greater reductions in fat mass (1 kg), body fat percentage (0.83%), and better preservation of resting metabolic rate (97.32 kcal) compared to rapid weight loss.

    “However, gradual weight loss resulted in modestly greater reductions in fat mass (1 kg), body fat percentage (0.83%), and better preservation of resting metabolic rate (97.32 kcal).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Ashtary-Larky D, Bagheri R, Abbasnezhad A, et al. Effects of gradual weight loss v. Rapid weight loss on body composition and RMR: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Nutr. 2020; 124(11): 1121– 1132. doi: 10.1017/S000711452000224X 32576318 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The preservation of lean mass can preserve energy expenditure, immune function, and proper utilization/partitioning of metabolic fuels.

    “The preservation of lean mass can thus preserve energy expenditure, immune function, and proper utilization/partitioning of metabolic fuels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Derron et al. reported greater fat loss with alternate-day fasting than with time-restricted eating in adults without obesity; the alternate-day fasting group spontaneously reduced energy intake by approximately 34% versus 15% with time-restricted eating.

    “In contrast, Derron et al. [73] recently reported greater fat loss with ADF than with time-restricted eating (TRE) in adults without obesity; however, the ADF group spontaneously reduced energy intake by approximately 34% versus 15% with TRE, whereas Templeman et al. [72] matched energy deficits between ADF and continuous restriction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Derron N, Guntner AT, Weber IC, et al. Alternate-day fasting elicits larger changes in fat mass than time-restricted eating in adults without obesity - A randomized clinical trial. Clin Nutr. 2025; 53: 212– 221. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2025.08.033 40945487 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The reference lists of the included papers were hand-searched for additional citations.

    “The reference lists of the included papers were hand-searched for additional citations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Higher meal frequencies were associated with greater losses of fat mass and retention of lean mass.

    “Higher meal frequencies were associated with greater losses of fat mass and retention of lean mass.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA, Krieger JW. Effects of meal frequency on weight loss and body composition: a meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2015; 73(2): 69– 82. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuu017 26024494 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A systematic review and meta-analysis by Ashtary-Larky et al. of 8 trials found mean body weight and body fat reductions via intermittent fasting were 2.08 and 1.36 kg, respectively, and the change in lean mass (−0.27 kg) was not statistically significant compared to control conditions.

    “A systematic review and meta-analysis by Ashtary-Larky et al. [77] included 8 trials ranging from 4 to 12 weeks, examining the effect of resistance training on IF regimens (2 ADF, 6 TRE trials). Relative to controls, the mean body weight and body fat reductions via IF were 2.08 and 1.36 kg, respectively. The change in lean mass (−0.27 kg) was not statistically significant compared to control”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [77] Ashtary-Larky D, Bagheri R, Tinsley GM, et al. Effects of intermittent fasting combined with resistance training on body composition: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Physiol Behav. 2021; 237: 113453. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113453 33984329 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The thermic effect of feeding of protein, carbohydrate, and fat is approximately 20%-30%, 5%-10%, and 0%-3%, respectively.

    “The TEF of protein, carbohydrate, and fat is approximately 20%–30%, 5%–10%, and 0%–3%, respectively [93].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [93] Tappy L. Thermic effect of food and sympathetic nervous system activity in humans. Reprod Nutr Dev. 1996; 36(4): 391– 397. doi: 10.1051/rnd:19960405 8878356

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The joint position stand of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and American College of Sports Medicine recommends 1.2-2.0 g/kg for physically active and athletic populations.

    “The joint position stand of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and American College of Sports Medicine recommends 1.2–2.0 g/kg [103] for physically active and athletic populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [103] Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. American college of sports Medicine joint position statement. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016; 48(3): 543– 568. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000852 26891166

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Some individual trials report greater weight or fat loss, particularly with high-protein protocols, but these effects cannot be attributed to fasting per se and are not consistently observed.

    “Some individual trials report greater weight or fat loss, particularly with high-protein protocols, but these effects cannot be attributed to fasting per se and are not consistently observed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The protective effect of resistance training on muscle protein breakdown is apparently not durable; training adaptations may still be compromised by chronically inadequate nutritional support, even at moderate deficits.

    “However, this protective effect is apparently not durable; training adaptations may still be compromised by chronically inadequate nutritional support, even at moderate deficits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In acute interventions, protein consistently increases fullness and decreases hunger and the desire to eat.

    “In acute interventions, protein consistently increases fullness, and decreases hunger and the desire to eat [94].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [94] Kohanmoo A, Faghih S, Akhlaghi M. Effect of short- and long-term protein consumption on appetite and appetite-regulating gastrointestinal hormones, a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Physiol Behav. 2020; 226: 113123. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113123 32768415 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Total daily protein is of primary importance, with distribution of the constituent doses being of secondary importance.

    “It bears emphasis that total daily protein is of primary importance, with distribution of the constituent doses being of secondary importance (and bet left to individual preference and long-term sustainability).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    A caveat to the findings on energy deficits and lean mass gains is that the majority of studies did not report actual protein intake, and there was high heterogeneity of protein intake assignment across studies.

    “However, a caveat to these findings is that the majority of studies did not report actual protein intake, and there was high heterogeneity of protein intake assignment across studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Alternate-day fasting may produce somewhat greater weight loss, potentially owing to a larger net energy deficit, but may also increase lean mass loss.

    “Alternate-day fasting may produce somewhat greater weight loss, potentially owing to a larger net energy deficit, but may also increase lean mass loss.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The upper end of the protein intake ranges for fat-free mass retention is primarily supported in lean, resistance-trained populations and may not apply to individuals with higher body fat percentages or non-training populations.

    “It is worth emphasizing that the upper end of these ranges is primarily supported in lean, resistance-trained populations and may not apply to individuals with higher body fat percentages or non-training populations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Resistance training and purposefully limiting weekly fasting days to three or fewer can mitigate the risk of lean mass loss with alternate-day fasting.

    “Resistance training and purposefully limiting weekly fasting days to three or fewer can mitigate this risk.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    More recent trials by Arciero et al. found that a high-protein/high-frequency approach combined with 1-2 weekly modified fasting days (~500 kcal/day) was superior to conventional control diets for improving body composition in a caloric deficit, most likely driven by enhanced gut microbiome diversity and metabolomic signatures.

    “More recent trials by Arciero et al. [71,91] found that the latter approach (high-protein/high-frequency) combined with 1–2 weekly modified fasting days (~500 kcal/day) was superior to the conventional control diets for improving body composition in a caloric deficit, most likely driven by enhanced gut microbiome diversity and metabolomic signatures [4].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [71] Arciero PJ, Poe M, Mohr AE, et al. Intermittent fasting and protein pacing are superior to caloric restriction for weight and visceral fat loss. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2023; 31 (Suppl 1): 139– 149. doi: 10.1002/oby.23660 PMC10107279 36575144
    • cites [91] Arciero PJ, Arciero KM, Poe M, et al. Intermittent fasting two days versus one day per week, matched for total energy intake and expenditure, increases weight loss in overweight/obese men and women. Nutr J. 2022; 21(1): 36. doi: 10.1186/s12937-022-00790-0 PMC9166203 35658959
    • cites [4] Mohr AE, Sweazea KL, Bowes DA, et al. Gut microbiome remodeling and metabolomic profile improves in response to protein pacing with intermittent fasting versus continuous caloric restriction. Nat Commun. 2024; 15(1): 4155. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-48355-5 PMC11133430 38806467 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Schoenfeld and Aragon proposed that muscle protein synthesis and muscle hypertrophy are maximized via protein dosed at 0.4-0.55 g/kg per meal over the course of at least 4 meals to a total of 1.6-2.2 g/kg/day.

    “Schoenfeld and Aragon [88] proposed that MPS (and in turn, muscle hypertrophy) is maximized via protein dosed at 0.4–0.55 g/kg per meal over the course of at least 4 meals to a total of 1.6–2.2 g/kg/day.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [88] Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA. How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? Implications for daily protein distribution. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018; 15: 10. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1 PMC5828430 29497353

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Sensitivity analysis removing a single 2-week study in boxers eliminated the statistical effect of meal frequency on changes in body composition, leading to the conclusion that the small difference in magnitude of effect between meal frequencies has limited practical significance.

    “However, sensitivity analysis revealed that the removal of a single, 2-week study in boxers [82] eliminated the statistical effect of meal frequency on changes in body composition, leading to the conclusion that the small difference in magnitude of effect between meal frequencies has limited practical significance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [82] Iwao S, Mori K, Sato Y. Effects of meal frequency on body composition during weight control in boxers. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1996; 6(5): 265– 272. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.1996.tb00469.x 8960647

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Hashimoto et al. meta-analysis found that in >12-month studies, KDs did not result in statistically greater weight loss (0.44 kg), but fat loss was statistically significant (0.97 kg).

    “Along similar lines, a meta-analysis by Hashimoto et al. [141] found that in >12-month studies, KDs did not result in statistically greater weight loss (0.44 kg), but fat loss was statistically significant (0.97 kg).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Hashimoto Y, Fukuda T, Oyabu C, et al. Impact of low-carbohydrate diet on body composition: meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. Obes Rev. 2016; 17(6): 499– 509. doi: 10.1111/obr.12405 27059106 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The authors of Hashimoto et al. acknowledged the possibility that KD's fat loss advantage was protein-mediated, since protein intakes in LCDs and KDs tended to be higher than those of control diets.

    “The authors acknowledged the possibility that KD’s fat loss advantage was protein-mediated, since protein intakes in LCDs and KDs tended to be higher than those of control diets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Hashimoto Y, Fukuda T, Oyabu C, et al. Impact of low-carbohydrate diet on body composition: meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. Obes Rev. 2016; 17(6): 499– 509. doi: 10.1111/obr.12405 27059106 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Koerich et al. 18-RCT meta-analysis found that in athletes and trained subjects, KD resulted in statistically significant reductions in body weight (2.4 kg) and fat mass (2.4 kg) losses, but also greater lean mass losses (0.8 kg) compared to control diets in trials ranging from 4 days to 12 weeks.

    “A subsequent 18-RCT meta-analysis by Koerich et al. [164] found that in athletes and trained subjects, KD resulted in statistically significant reductions in body weight (2.4 kg) and fat mass (2.4 kg) losses, but also greater lean mass losses (0.8 kg) compared to control diets in trials ranging from 4 days to 12 weeks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] Koerich ACC, Borszcz FK, Thives Mello A, et al. Effects of the ketogenic diet on performance and body composition in athletes and trained adults: a systematic review and Bayesian multivariate multilevel meta-analysis and meta-regression. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023; 63(32): 11399– 11424. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2090894 35757868

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Ketosis is a relatively benign state distinct from ketoacidosis, which is the pathological and potentially life-threatening overproduction of ketones in the absence of exogenous insulin.

    “Ketosis (also referred to as nutritional ketosis) is a relatively benign state distinct from ketoacidosis, which is the pathological and potentially life-threatening overproduction of ketones in the absence of exogenous insulin [149].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [149] Ghimire P, Dhamoon AS. Ketoacidosis. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls; 2025.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The protein content of a ketogenic diet is generally advised to be moderate to preserve a state of ketosis by minimizing gluconeogenesis.

    “The protein content of the KD is generally advised to be moderate to preserve a state of ketosis by minimizing gluconeogenesis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Reduced insulin secretion and circulating insulin concentrations (and concomitant increase in lipolysis) are a commonly proposed mechanism underpinning the body weight reduction effectiveness of the KD.

    “Reduced insulin secretion and circulating insulin concentrations (and concomitant increase in lipolysis) are another commonly proposed mechanism underpinning the body weight reduction effectiveness of the KD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [158] Taubes G. The science of obesity: what do we really know about what makes us fat? An essay by gary taubes. Brit Med J. 2013; 346: f1050– f1050. doi: 10.1136/bmj.f1050 23596125
    • cites [159] Ludwig DS, Friedman MI. Increasing adiposity: consequence or cause of overeating? J Am Med Assoc. 2014; 311(21): 2167– 2168. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.4133 24839118 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Higher-protein diets improve weight loss outcomes by enhancing satiety, increasing the thermic effect of feeding, and supporting lean mass retention.

    “Higher-protein diets improve weight loss outcomes by enhancing satiety, increasing the thermic effect of feeding, and supporting lean mass retention.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Ashtary-Larky et al. 13-RCT systematic review and meta-analysis limited to resistance trainees found significant advantages of KDs over control diets for reductions in body weight (3.67 kg) and fat mass (2.21 kg), but fat-free mass was reduced by 1.26 kg compared to controls.

    “A 13-RCT systematic review and meta-analysis by Ashtary-Larky et al. [163] limited to resistance trainees found significant advantages of KDs over control diets for reductions in body weight (3.67 kg) and fat mass (2.21 kg). However, fat-free mass was reduced by 1.26 kg compared to controls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [163] Ashtary-Larky D, Bagheri R, Asbaghi O, et al. Effects of resistance training combined with a ketogenic diet on body composition: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2022; 62(21): 5717– 5732. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1890689 33624538 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Coleman et al. 13-study systematic review reported greater body weight reduction (2.7 vs. 0.3 kg) and body fat reduction (2.3 vs. 0.3 kg) in KDs compared to control diets in physically active subjects, with fat-free mass decreasing by 0.3 kg in KD but increasing by 0.7 kg in control diets.

    “A 13-study systematic review by Coleman et al. [162] reported greater body weight reduction (2.7 vs. 0.3 kg) and body fat reduction (2.3 vs. 0.3 kg) in KDs compared to control diets in physically active subjects. Fat-free mass decreased by 0.3 kg in KD, but increased by 0.7 kg in the control diets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [162] Coleman JL, Carrigan CT, Margolis LM. Body composition changes in physically active individuals consuming ketogenic diets: a systematic review. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021; 18(1): 41. doi: 10.1186/s12970-021-00440-6 PMC8180141 34090453

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Much of the early weight loss advantage of carbohydrate restriction appears to be from water loss via reduced glycogen storage, with minimal differences in fat loss compared to a non-ketogenic diet.

    “However, much of the early weight loss advantage of carbohydrate restriction appears to be from water loss via reduced glycogen storage, with minimal differences in fat loss compared to a non-ketogenic diet [146].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [146] Yang MU, Van Itallie TB. Composition of weight lost during short-term weight reduction. Metabolic responses of obese subjects to starvation and low-calorie ketogenic and nonketogenic diets. J Clin Invest. 1976; 58(3): 722– 730. doi: 10.1172/JCI108519 PMC333231 956398

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    When energy intake and protein intake are comparable, low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets produce similar effects on weight loss and fat loss, indicating that macronutrient distribution is less important than sustained energy restriction and dietary adherence.

    “When energy intake and protein intake are comparable, low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets produce similar effects on weight loss and fat loss, indicating that macronutrient distribution is less important than sustained energy restriction and dietary adherence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Kysel et al. 8-week trial comparing cyclical ketogenic diet (CKD) with weekend carb-ups versus linear high-carbohydrate low-fat moderately hypocaloric reduction diet (RD) in resistance-trained men found that differences in fat loss between CKD and RD did not reach statistical significance, but favored RD (1.9 and 4.0 kg, respectively); lean mass loss was statistically greater in CKD (−1.8 and −0.4

    “The differences in fat loss between CKD and RD did not reach statistical significance, but the differences (1.9 and 4.0 kg, respectively) favored RD. Lean mass loss was statistically greater in CKD (−1.8 and −0.4 kg, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [165] Kysel P, Haluzikova D, Dolezalova RP, et al. The influence of cyclical ketogenic reduction diet vs. Nutritionally balanced reduction diet on body composition, strength, and endurance performance in healthy young males: a randomized controlled trial. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9): 2832. doi: 10.3390/nu12092832 PMC7551961 32947920

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity (CIM) implicates carbohydrate as the primary insulinogenic agent, and thus the macronutrient to be minimized in the pursuit of body weight loss or prevention of weight gain.

    “This is the core premise of the carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity (CIM), which implicates carbohydrate as the primary insulinogenic agent, and thus the macronutrient to be minimized in the pursuit of body weight loss or prevention of weight gain [158,159].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [158] Taubes G. The science of obesity: what do we really know about what makes us fat? An essay by gary taubes. Brit Med J. 2013; 346: f1050– f1050. doi: 10.1136/bmj.f1050 23596125
    • cites [159] Ludwig DS, Friedman MI. Increasing adiposity: consequence or cause of overeating? J Am Med Assoc. 2014; 311(21): 2167– 2168. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.4133 24839118 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The authors of Koerich et al. attributed the weight/fat loss advantages to the greater satiating effect of the higher protein content of KDs.

    “The authors attributed the weight/fat loss advantages to the greater satiating effect of the higher protein content of KDs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] Koerich ACC, Borszcz FK, Thives Mello A, et al. Effects of the ketogenic diet on performance and body composition in athletes and trained adults: a systematic review and Bayesian multivariate multilevel meta-analysis and meta-regression. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023; 63(32): 11399– 11424. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2090894 35757868

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A recent scoping review by Skartun et al. reported that common, transient symptoms experienced during keto-induction in adult populations include halitosis (38%), constipation (1%-68%), liver function abnormalities (24%), feelings of decreased energy (18%-25%), light-headedness/dizziness (15%-21%), skin rash (13%-21%), muscle cramps (3%-37%), headache (8%-25%), nausea (8%-16%), diarrhea (2%-23%),

    “A recent scoping review by Skartun et al. [171] reported that common, transient symptoms experienced during keto-induction (transition from a standard, high-carbohydrate diet to nutritional ketosis) in adult populations include the following: halitosis (38%), constipation (1%–68%), liver function abnormalities (24%), feelings of decreased energy (18%–25%), light-headedness/dizziness (15%–21%),”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [171] Skartun O, Smith CR, Laupsa-Borge J, et al. Symptoms during initiation of a ketogenic diet: a scoping review of occurrence rates, mechanisms and relief strategies. Front Nutr. 2025; 12: 1538266. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1538266 PMC11978633 40206956

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    These findings serve to strengthen the larger body of evidence that KDs excel in fat mass reduction, but are suboptimal for lean mass preservation.

    “These findings serve to strengthen the larger body of evidence that KDs excel in fat mass reduction, but are suboptimal for lean mass preservation [166].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [166] Ashtary-Larky D, Bagheri R, Bavi H, et al. Ketogenic diets, physical activity and body composition: a review. Br J Nutr. 2022; 127(12): 1898– 1920. doi: 10.1017/S0007114521002609 PMC9244428 34250885

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Ketosis has been regarded as a unique and favorable metabolic state, due to lower plasma insulin concentrations and preferential use of fat as a primary fuel source.

    “Ketosis has been regarded as a unique and favorable metabolic state, due to lower plasma insulin concentrations and preferential use of fat as a primary fuel source [153].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [153] Dowis K, Banga S. The potential health benefits of the ketogenic diet: a narrative review. Nutrients. 2021; 13(5): 1654. doi: 10.3390/nu13051654 PMC8153354 34068325

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Ketogenic diets may provide modest advantages for weight and fat loss compared to higher-carbohydrate comparator diets, but these benefits tend to diminish over time, and may be accompanied by greater lean mass loss.

    “Ketogenic diets may provide modest advantages for weight and fat loss compared to higher-carbohydrate comparator diets, but these benefits tend to diminish over time, and may be accompanied by greater lean mass loss.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This highlights the primary importance of adequate protein intake and appropriate total caloric targets (regardless of carbohydrate-fat proportion, which should be individualized).

    “This highlights the primary importance of adequate protein intake and appropriate total caloric targets (regardless of carbohydrate‒fat proportion, which should be individualized).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Very-low energy diets (VLEDs) and low-energy diets (LEDs) have a high-risk/high-benefit profile, and their utility is limited primarily to urgent clinical interventions.

    “Very-low energy diets (VLEDs) and low-energy diets (LEDs) have a high-risk/high-benefit profile, and their utility is limited primarily to urgent clinical interventions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Persistent plateaus generally reflect either adaptation toward a new energy equilibrium or reduced adherence.

    “Persistent plateaus generally reflect either adaptation toward a new energy equilibrium or reduced adherence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Education, re-education, skill-building, and accountability are needed to alleviate the occurrence of progress plateaus, which are largely mediated by lapses in compliance.

    “In light of this issue, education, re-education, skill-building, and accountability are needed to alleviate the occurrence of progress plateaus, which are largely mediated by lapses in compliance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Poon et al. systematic review and meta-analysis investigated effect of intermittent dieting with break periods on body composition and metabolic adaptation; 12 RCTs included, 4 to 52 weeks, diet breaks 1 day to 6 weeks; statistically significant improvements in body composition occurred in both intermittent and continuous energy restriction groups, with no statistical between-group differences;

    “A systematic review and meta-analysis by Poon et al. [203] investigated the effect of intermittent dieting with break periods on body composition and metabolic adaptation. A total of 12 RCTs were included, ranging from 4 to 52 weeks, with diet breaks ranging 1 day to 6 weeks. Statistically significant improvements in body composition occurred in both the intermittent and continuous energy”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [203] Poon ET, Tsang JH, Sun F, et al. Effects of intermittent dieting with break periods on body composition and metabolic adaptation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2025; 83(1): 59– 71. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuad168 38193357 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    These adaptations occurred in both individuals with and without obesity and involved changes in resting and nonresting energy expenditure, supporting the concept that human energy balance is subject to physiological regulation that can oppose sustained departures from an individual's customary body weight.

    “These adaptations occurred in both individuals with and without obesity and involved changes in resting and nonresting energy expenditure, supporting the concept that human energy balance is subject to physiological regulation that can oppose sustained departures from an individual’s customary body weight.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The set-point concept (also called the lipostatic theory) posits that humans have a genetically predetermined body weight in adulthood, governed by hypothalamic control, which the body is inexorably driven toward maintaining, regardless of attempts at change.

    “Persistent stagnations in body weight evoke the “set-point” concept (also called the lipostatic theory), which posits that humans have a genetically predetermined body weight in adulthood, governed by hypothalamic control, which the body is inexorably driven toward maintaining, regardless of attempts at change [218].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [218] Harris RB. Role of set-point theory in regulation of body weight. FASEB J. 1990; 4(15): 3310– 3318. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.4.15.2253845 2253845

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Dietary carbohydrate-fat proportion can be individualized to personal preference for the goal of weight loss, since the range of ketogenic to low-fat diets performs similarly.

    “Dietary carbohydrate-fat proportion can be individualized to personal preference for the goal of weight loss, since the range of ketogenic to low-fat diets performs similarly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    A multitude of tactics can be implemented to manage and overcome plateaus.

    “A multitude of tactics can be implemented to manage and overcome plateaus.”
    • Also stated in: § Summary and conclusions · plain
      “A multitude of tactics can be implemented to manage and overcome plateaus when further weight reduction is desired.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Weight loss commonly slows over time, and periods of weight stability may reflect physiological adaptation, behavioral factors, or normal fluctuations.

    “Weight loss commonly slows over time, and periods of weight stability may reflect physiological adaptation, behavioral factors, or normal fluctuations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Martins et al. investigated REE changes in overweight subjects after a mean loss of 12 kg over a ~6-month period; after reaching targeted weight loss via an 800 kcal/day diet, AT was −54 kcal; at 1- and 2-year follow-up (where 52% and 54% of weight was regained), assessments after 4-week weight-stability periods showed AT was −43 and −19 kcal, respectively; it was concluded that AT is minimal when

    “Martins et al. [193] investigated REE changes in overweight subjects after a mean loss of 12 kg over a ~6-month period. After reaching the targeted weight loss via an 800 kcal/day diet, AT was −54 kcal. At the 1- and 2-year follow-up points (where 52% and 54% of weight was regained), assessments were conducted after the 4-week weight-stability periods, and AT was −43 and −19 kcal, respectively. It”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [193] Martins C, Gower BA, Hill JO, et al. Metabolic adaptation is not a major barrier to weight-loss maintenance. AJCN. 2020; 112(3): 558– 565. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqaa086 PMC7458773 32386226

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Pontzer and Trexler reported that the compensation or 'constraint' of energy expenditure is reduced with resistance training but pronounced during combined aerobic exercise and dietary restriction.

    “Pontzer and Trexler [181] reported that the compensation or ‘constraint’ of energy expenditure is reduced with resistance training but pronounced during combined aerobic exercise and dietary restriction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [181] Pontzer H, Trexler ET. The evidence for constrained total energy expenditure in humans and other animals. Curr Biol. 2026; 36(4): 1013– 1025 e4. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2026.01.025 41653928

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Diets for body weight reduction can be broadly categorized by the magnitude of energy deficit, linearity of energy deficit, and macronutrient composition.

    “Diets for body weight reduction can be broadly categorized by the magnitude of energy deficit, linearity of energy deficit, and macronutrient composition.”
    • Also stated in: § Position of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) · plain
      “Diets for body weight reduction can be broadly categorized by the magnitude of the energy deficit, linearity of the deficit, and macronutrient composition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Aggressive diets (VLEDs/LEDs) may increase lean mass loss, although adequate protein intake and resistance training may mitigate this risk.

    “These aggressive diets may increase lean mass loss, although adequate protein intake and resistance training may mitigate this risk.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Ultimately, the weight loss-mediated increase in ghrelin and a decrease in PYY and GLP-1 sets the stage for increased hunger and decreased satiety, reflecting the body's perpetual homeostatic drive.

    “Ultimately, the weight loss-mediated increase in ghrelin and a decrease in PYY and GLP-1 sets the stage for increased hunger and decreased satiety, reflecting the body’s perpetual homeostatic drive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Body weight regulation reflects the interaction of biological constraints, individual variability, and lifestyle behaviors rather than a fixed "set point."

    “Body weight regulation reflects the interaction of biological constraints, individual variability, and lifestyle behaviors rather than a fixed “set point.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Total daily protein is of primary importance; the specific distribution of the constituent doses is a secondary concern.

    “Total daily protein is of primary importance; The specific distribution of the constituent doses is a secondary concern.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Skeletal muscle is a subcomponent of lean mass, accounting for ~50% of total lean mass, but contributing to only ~30% of REE.

    “Skeletal muscle is a subcomponent of lean mass, accounting for ~50% of total lean mass, but contributing to only ~30% of REE [185].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [185] Javed F, He Q, Davidson LE, et al. Brain and high metabolic rate organ mass: contributions to resting energy expenditure beyond fat-free mass. AJCN. 2010; 91(4): 907– 912. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28512 PMC2844678 20164308

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Adaptive thermogenesis represents a measurable but often modest reduction in energy expenditure after weight loss; current evidence suggests that it is substantially attenuated or absent in weight-stable conditions, challenging the concept of a persistent "starvation mode" that prevents long-term weight loss/weight loss maintenance.

    “Adaptive thermogenesis represents a measurable but often modest reduction in energy expenditure after weight loss; current evidence suggests that it is substantially attenuated or absent in weight-stable conditions, challenging the concept of a persistent “starvation mode” that prevents long-term weight loss/weight loss maintenance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In practice, apparent plateaus can also reflect short-term noise rather than a true stall in fat loss, for example, changes in total body water, glycogen, and gut content, menstrual cycle-related fluid shifts, inflammation after novel or high-volume training, travel, and sodium or carbohydrate intake.

    “In practice, apparent plateaus can also reflect short-term noise rather than a true stall in fat loss, for example, changes in total body water, glycogen, and gut content, menstrual cycle-related fluid shifts, inflammation after novel or high-volume training, travel, and sodium or carbohydrate intake.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Leibel et al. demonstrated that experimentally induced changes in body weight elicit substantial, directionally compensatory adaptations in energy expenditure: maintenance of a body weight ≥10% below baseline was associated with a reduction in total energy expenditure of approximately 6-8 kcal/kg fat-free mass/day, whereas a 10% increase in body weight increased energy expenditure by approximately

    “A classic investigation by Leibel et al. [199] demonstrated that experimentally induced changes in body weight elicit substantial, directionally compensatory adaptations in energy expenditure: maintenance of a body weight ≥10% below baseline was associated with a reduction in total energy expenditure of approximately 6–8 kcal/kg fat-free mass/day, whereas a 10% increase in body weight increased”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [199] Leibel RL, Rosenbaum M, Hirsch J. Changes in energy expenditure resulting from altered body weight. NEJM. 1995; 332(10): 621– 628. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199503093321001 7632212 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Only 5 of the 66 subjects overcame the weight loss-mediated reduction in AEE, which required reducing sedentary time by 2 h per day, and increasing the duration of actively standing (50 min), walking (30 min), and bicycling (5 min).

    “Only 5 of the 66 subjects overcame the weight loss-mediated reduction in AEE, which required reducing sedentary time by 2 h per day, and increasing the duration of actively standing (50 min), walking (30 min), and bicycling (5 min).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [179] Bonomi AG, Soenen S, Goris AH, et al. Weight-loss induced changes in physical activity and activity energy expenditure in overweight and obese subjects before and after energy restriction. PLoS One. 2013; 8(3): e59641. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059641 PMC3605325 23555733

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Successful weight loss often requires professional assistance and social support.

    “Successful weight loss often requires professional assistance and social support.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Skeletal muscle at rest has an energy expenditure of ~13 kcal/kg/day, compared to other organs such as the liver, brain, heart, and kidneys, which are 15-30 times more metabolically active at rest than skeletal muscle is.

    “However, at rest, its energy expenditure is relatively minor (~13 kcal/kg/day) compared to other organs, such as the liver, brain, heart, and kidneys, which are 15–30 times more metabolically active at rest than skeletal muscle is [186].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [186] McClave SA, Snider HL. Dissecting the energy needs of the body. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2001; 4(2): 143– 147. doi: 10.1097/00075197-200103000-00011 11224660

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Horn et al. defined a 'weight plateau' as less than 5% weight loss in a 12-week period.

    “Horn et al. [212] recently defined a ‘weight plateau’ as less than 5% weight loss in a 12-week period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [212] Horn DB, Kahan S, Batterham RL, et al. Time to weight plateau with tirzepatide treatment in the SURMOUNT-1 and SURMOUNT-4 clinical trials. Clin Obes. 2025; 15(3): e12734. doi: 10.1111/cob.12734 PMC12096058 39800653

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Weight loss promotes behavioral and appetite-related adaptations, including reduced non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), increased hunger signals, and decreased satiety signals; however, maintaining physical activity, resistance training, and reducing sedentary behaviors may help minimize compensatory responses.

    “Weight loss promotes behavioral and appetite-related adaptations, including reduced non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), increased hunger signals, and decreased satiety signals; however, maintaining physical activity, resistance training, and reducing sedentary behaviors may help minimize compensatory responses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Martin et al. examined effects of calorie restriction on free-living activity energy expenditure (AEE), excluding exercise-related expenditure; across three separate trials, calorie restriction ranged from 10% to 30% below maintenance, with one trial also including a low-calorie diet (890 kcal/day until 15% weight loss, followed by weight maintenance); decreases in AEE at 6 months ranged from

    “In a hypocaloric example, Martin et al. [208] examined the effects of calorie restriction on free-living activity energy expenditure (AEE), excluding exercise-related expenditure, allowing NEAT to be the focus. Across three separate trials, calorie restriction ranged from 10% to 30% below maintenance, with one trial also including a low-calorie diet (890 kcal/day until 15% weight loss, followed by”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [208] Martin CK, Das SK, Lindblad L, et al. Effect of calorie restriction on the free-living physical activity levels of nonobese humans: results of three randomized trials. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2011; 110(4): 956– 963. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00846.2009 PMC3075130 21292847

  • It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Campbell et al. 7-week comparison of non-linear versus linear carbohydrate intakes in resistance-trained subjects found no statistically significant between-group differences in fat loss; the refeed group lost less FFM (0.4 vs. 1.3 kg) and had less of a drop in REE (−38 vs. −78 kcal); the metabolic advantage of the non-linear diet was trivial, but the potential behavioral advantage of weekly high-

    “This study by Campbell et al. [204] administered a non-linear diet that involved a 35% deficit (via carbohydrate restriction) on 5 days, followed by 2 days at maintenance calories (via refeeding carbohydrate). The control group maintained a daily 25% caloric deficit. Carbohydrate intake in the two groups was equivalent when averaged across the week. No statistically significant between-group”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [204] Campbell BI, Aguilar D, Colenso-Semple LM, et al. Intermittent energy restriction attenuates the loss of fat free mass in resistance trained individuals. A randomized controlled trial. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2020; 5(1): 19. doi: 10.3390/jfmk5010019 PMC7739314 33467235

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Adaptive thermogenesis can occur in response to hypocaloric conditions and weight loss, but it is not an inevitable response, and it may attenuate substantially upon attainment of weight stability.

    “It can occur in response to hypocaloric conditions and weight loss, but it is not an inevitable response, and it may attenuate substantially upon attainment of weight stability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Persistent weight loss plateaus generally arise from two broad mechanisms: 1) arrival at a new energetic equilibrium, where strategic adjustments may be required to resume progress, or 2) decreased dietary and exercise adherence.

    “In practical terms, persistent weight loss plateaus generally arise from two broad mechanisms: 1) arrival at a new energetic equilibrium, where strategic adjustments may be required to resume progress, or 2) decreased dietary and exercise adherence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Screen time (TV, desktop device, mobile phone) can be a significant barrier to physical activity, healthy sleep patterns, and psychological health.

    “On a final note, screen time (TV, desktop device, mobile phone) can be a significant barrier to physical activity [209], healthy sleep patterns, and psychological health [210].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [209] Bonilla DA, Peralta-Alzate JO, Bonilla-Henao JA, et al. Insights into non-exercise physical activity on control of body mass: a review with practical recommendations. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2023; 8(2): 44. doi: 10.3390/jfmk8020044 PMC10123606 37092376
    • cites [210] Nakshine VS, Thute P, Khatib MN, et al. Increased screen time as a cause of declining physical, psychological health, and sleep patterns: a literary review. Cureus. 2022; 14(10): e30051. doi: 10.7759/cureus.30051 PMC9638701 36381869 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Daily protein intakes ranging from 1.6 to 2.2 g/kg BW combined with resistance training may optimize muscle anabolism and lean mass retention in sustained hypocaloric conditions.

    “Daily protein intakes ranging from 1.6 to 2.2 g/kg BW combined with resistance training may optimize muscle anabolism”
    • Also stated in: § Summary and conclusions · plain
      “Protein intakes of 1.6–2.2 g/kg/day (and even higher in lean, resistance-trained individuals) can optimize lean mass retention in sustained hypocaloric conditions, and possibly result in recomposition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
128 of 128

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a need for a position stand to distinguish evidence-based information from falsehood in the media landscape regarding diets for weight loss.

    “The diversity of dietary approaches to weight loss is accompanied by claims of varying veracity. This presents the challenge of distinguishing evidence-based information from falsehood pervading the media landscape.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings from overweight/obese clinical populations can be extrapolated to healthy, physically active, and/or athletic adults when the evidence base is primarily clinical.

    “while drawing on overweight/obesity research when the evidence base is primarily clinical”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    For individuals on prescription medications for weight loss such as GLP-1 receptor agonists, the effect is an induction of low to very low energy intake, analogous to purposeful dieting.

    “For individuals on prescription medications for weight loss, such as the GLP-1 RA class of medicines, the effect is an induction of low to very low energy intake, analogous to purposeful dieting.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The transient energy deficits imposed by fasting periods tend to outpace the transient energy surpluses imposed by unrestricted feeding periods.

    “The transient energy deficits imposed by fasting periods (whether intra-day or intra-week) tend to outpace the transient energy surpluses imposed by unrestricted feeding periods.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    High-quality weight loss is characterized by maximal preservation of lean mass.

    “High-quality weight loss is characterized by maximal preservation of lean mass, which is a crucial differentiation from merely moving the number on the scale.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The ultimate goal of weight loss is the ability to sustain a healthier body weight over time, not continued weight reduction.

    “the ultimate goal of weight loss is not continued weight reduction, but the ability to sustain a healthier body weight over time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A 4- to 8-week period of stagnation in the face of good adherence can be considered a plateau.

    “A 4- to 8-week period of stagnation in the face of good adherence can be considered a plateau.”
7 of 7

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Ghimire P , Dhamoon AS . Ketoacidosis. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls; 2025.
  2. National Academies of Sciences E, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee on the Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy: Factors Affecting Energy Expenditure and Requirements. National Academies Press; 2023 Jan 17. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK591031/
  3. von Loeffelholz C , Birkenfeld AL . Non-exercise activity thermogenesis in human energy homeostasis. In: Feingold KR , Adler RA , Ahmed SF , Anawalt B , Blackman MR , Chrousos G , et al. , editors. Endotext. South Dartmouth (MA), 2000.
  4. Sarwan G , Daley SF , Rehman A . Management of Weight Loss Plateau. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls; 2025.

Cited by

Still being checked.

Related

Metadata

Authors
Aragon, A. A., Campbell, B. I., Schoenfeld, B. J., Stout, J. R., Kalman, D., Arciero, P. J., Arent, S. M., Kreider, R. B., Taylor, L. W., Bannock, L., Wildman, R. E. C., Kerksick, C. M., & Antonio, J.
Affiliations
  • Fit Advancement, LLC
  • University of South Florida (US)
  • Department of Exercise Science and Recreation, CUNY Lehman College
  • University of Central Florida (US)
  • Nova Southeastern University (US)
  • Skidmore College (US)
  • University of South Carolina (US)
  • Texas A&M University (US)
  • University of Mary Hardin–Baylor (US)
  • Institute of Performance Nutrition
  • Kansas State University (US)
  • Lindenwood University (US)
  • Department of Health and Human Performance, Nova Southeastern University
Corresponding author
Aragon, Alan A.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2026-10-13
Volume
23
Issue
1
Pages
2740266-2740266
ISSN
1550-2783 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1080/15502783.2026.2740266
PMC
PMC13665703
OpenAlex
W7221692863
Cited by
0
References
219
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Dietary Effects on Health
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Diet and metabolism studies
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Keywords
weight loss, weight loss diet, negative energy balance, very low calorie diet, hypocaloric diet, intermittent fasting, alternate-day fasting, time-restricted eating, meal frequency, protein intake, resistance training, macronutrient composition, body composition, athletic performance, overweight and obesity, nutritional adequacy
MeSH terms
Energy Intake, Diet, Reducing, Dietary Proteins, Humans, Obesity, Weight Loss, Caloric Restriction, Overweight, Sports Nutritional Sciences, Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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