A brain-centric model of suicidal behavior
Open accessAbstract
The suicide death toll is alarmingly high, outnumbering deaths from war and homicide worldwide (1). Many factors contribute to suicide death, making it difficult to prevent because it is much more than a response to life stressors. Campaigns to lower U.S. suicide rates by 20% by 2025, and even to zero, confront hard realities such as not knowing why the annual suicide rate in the United States has risen every year since 2000 (2). The concurrent fall in suicide rates worldwide (1) is largely driven by restricting access to one highly lethal suicide method, namely, pesticides, which are commonly used in a few very populous countries, including China, India, and Sri Lanka (3-5). That approach saves lives without addressing the reasons people want to die by suicide. Currently empirically proven suicide prevention methods (Figure 1) include 1) better training of nonpsychiatrist physicians in the diagnosis and treatment of depression, the most common psychiatric disorder associated with suicide (6); 2) better outreach during the highest risk period, after suicidal patients are discharged from hospital or the emergency department (7); and 3) means restriction, focused on the commonest methods in each country (8). To prevent suicide in the short term, we need to scale up the use of these proven methods. To use these methods more effectively, we need to know who is at risk and when the risk is greater. Progress in both domains has stalled. Rehashing older approaches does not improve suicide risk assessment or prevention (9). While universal approaches like training primary care physicians to manage depression and means restriction work (10), for targeted prevention approaches we need to find new risk detection methods. The explosion of new information about the causes of suicidal behavior (11) needs to be built into a
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Mann proposes a brain-centric stress-diathesis model in which suicide risk arises from the interaction of acute stressors with suicide-related traits—subjective distress, altered decision making, neuropsychological deficits, and social distortions—linked to specific neural circuitry, neurotransmitter, stress-response, neurotrophic, and inflammatory abnormalities. The paper argues that suicidal behavior should be considered a distinct mental disorder and that these diathesis-related biological pathways can guide risk detection and prevention.
Key findings
- The stress-diathesis model identifies four risk-moderating trait domains: excessive subjective distress/attentional bias, altered decision making with impulsive-aggressive tendencies, neuropsychological abnormalities (learning, cognitive rigidity, memory), and social distortions such as thwarted belongingness.
- Biological correlates include deficient serotonin release: low CSF 5-HIAA predicts suicide risk in depressed individuals with an odds ratio of 4.6; up-regulated serotonin 1A autoreceptors are associated with fatal and nonfatal suicide attempts.
- Clinical/prevention findings cited include that major depressive episodes account for about 60% of psychiatric diagnoses in suicide decedents, suicide death rate is 300 times higher in the first week and 200 times higher in the first month after inpatient psychiatric discharge versus the general population, and over 80% of suicide attempt survivors do not end up dying by suicide.
- Around 60% of individuals denying suicidal ideation on weekly self-report reported suicidal thoughts using ecological momentary assessment delivered six times a day over the same 1-week period; a recent review reported 40 genes associated with suicidal behavior independently of psychiatric diagnoses.
Methods
- Design: conceptual/review article presenting a heuristic brain-centric stress-diathesis model of suicidal behavior; no primary experimental study is reported.
- Data/sample: synthesis of prior human genetic, epigenetic, neuroimaging, neurotransmitter, stress-response, neurotrophic, inflammatory, clinical, and treatment literature; no new sample or dataset is described.
- Main analysis: narrative integration of cited findings into a model linking stressors, diathesis traits, neural circuitry, and prevention targets; no systematic review, meta-analysis, or statistical analysis is reported.
Limitations
- Paper-stated limitations include that passive sensing/phonotype approaches lack replicated data on prediction of suicidal behavior risk; longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether fluctuating suicide risk correlates with inflammation; ketamine has never been tested for preventing suicidal behavior; and rTMS results are preliminary because most studies have small sample sizes and lack control groups.
- The paper also notes mixed or inconclusive evidence in several domains, including neuroimaging studies of suicidal behavior and ideation disagreeing about details, DTI studies of suicidal ideation being inconclusive, and mixed results for HPA axis abnormalities and suicidal ideation.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review/model paper, it does not use a systematic search strategy or quantitative synthesis, and many cited genetic, neuroimaging, and biomarker findings remain unreplicated or heterogeneous.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 324 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Premisecitation
Suicidal behavior is the outcome of an interaction between acute stressors or proximal risk factors and a diathesis or distal factors.
“The stress-diathesis model (13, 14) depicts suicidal behavior as a consequence of an interaction between acute stressors or proximal risk factors and a diathesis or distal factors (Figure 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation§ A Brain-Centric Model of Suicidal Behavior
Only a minority of psychiatric patients make suicide attempts.
“Second, only a minority of psychiatric patients make suicide attempts, and the presence or absence of suicidal behavior is not simply determined by the presence of a psychiatric illness or the overall severity of illness (12-14).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation§ A Brain-Centric Model of Suicidal Behavior
Suicidal behavior appears in many psychiatric disorders, not only in mood disorders and borderline personality disorder.
“First, suicidal behavior is found in many psychiatric disorders and not just in mood disorders and borderline personality disorder, where it is part of the diagnostic symptom list.”
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Combining GWAS with transcriptome data indicates that suicide-related genes are associated with inflammation, the HPA axis, GABA and glutamate neurotransmission, and neurogenesis.
“Combining GWASs with transcriptome data indicates that suicide-related genes are associated with inflammation, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate neurotransmission, and neurogenesis (51-56).”
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- cites [52] source
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- cites [54] Haghighi F, 2015, Front Neurol source
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- cites [56] Coon H, Mol Psychiatry
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Suicide risk may be mediated by genetic and epigenetic effects of stress response genes.
“Suicide risk may be mediated by genetic and epigenetic effects of stress response genes (58-61).”
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- Premisecitation
Suicide risk is increased by cognitive distortions related to social reward and exclusion.
“- Suicide risk is increased by cognitive distortions related to social reward and exclusion (40).”
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Severity of suicide attempts is associated with genes involved in anaerobic energy production, circadian clock regulation, and tyrosine catabolism.
“Severity of suicide attempts is associated with genes involved in anerobic energy production, circadian clock regulation, and tyrosine catabolism (57).”
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Suicide attempters have impaired deterministic learning in complex unambiguous environments.
“- Suicide attempters exhibit less language fluency and learning (38) and impaired deterministic learning in the context of complex unambiguous environments (39).”
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- Premisecitation
Heritability of suicidal behavior is mediated by many gene variants of small effect.
“Human genetic studies have made three major observations: 1) heritability of fatal or nonfatal suicidal behavior and even ideation is moderate; 2) heritability of suicidal behavior is independent of major psychiatric syndromes; and 3) heritability of suicidal behavior is mediated by many gene variants of small effect (44-47).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked - Premisecitation
Heritability of suicidal behavior is independent of major psychiatric syndromes.
“Human genetic studies have made three major observations: 1) heritability of fatal or nonfatal suicidal behavior and even ideation is moderate; 2) heritability of suicidal behavior is independent of major psychiatric syndromes; and 3) heritability of suicidal behavior is mediated by many gene variants of small effect (44-47).”
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A recent review reported 40 genes associated with suicidal behavior independently of psychiatric diagnoses.
“A recent review reported 40 genes associated with suicidal behavior, independently of psychiatric diagnoses (50).”
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- Premisecitation§ A Brain-Centric Model of Suicidal Behavior
The presence or absence of suicidal behavior is not simply determined by the presence or overall severity of a psychiatric illness.
“Second, only a minority of psychiatric patients make suicide attempts, and the presence or absence of suicidal behavior is not simply determined by the presence of a psychiatric illness or the overall severity of illness (12-14).”
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Genome-wide association studies have identified some suicide-specific candidate genes that mostly remain to be replicated.
“After candidate gene studies stalled because effects were too small and difficult to replicate, rapidly expanding sample sizes for genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have identified some suicide-specific candidate genes that also mostly remain to be replicated (48, 49).”
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- cites [49] Erlangsen A, Mol Psychiatry
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Heritability of fatal or nonfatal suicidal behavior and even ideation is moderate.
“Human genetic studies have made three major observations: 1) heritability of fatal or nonfatal suicidal behavior and even ideation is moderate; 2) heritability of suicidal behavior is independent of major psychiatric syndromes; and 3) heritability of suicidal behavior is mediated by many gene variants of small effect (44-47).”
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High-lethality suicide attempters are generally more deliberate and planned than low-lethality attempters.
“Decision making differs in high-lethality suicide attempters relative to low-lethality attempters because the former are generally more deliberate and planned.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation§ A Brain-Centric Model of Suicidal Behavior
Suicide risk is moderated by psychopathological and cognitive traits that differ from the psychopathology of associated psychiatric illnesses.
“Suicidal behavior risk is moderated by a set of psychopathological and cognitive traits that are different from the psychopathology of associated psychiatric illnesses.”
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Impaired cognitive control is the most consistent deficit found in suicide attempters.
“These learning deficits scale with attempt lethality and are partially explained by impaired cognitive control (34), the most consistent deficit found in suicide attempters (17, 22, 24).”
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High-lethality attempters have greater impairment of reward learning, which hampers the search for alternative solutions.
“High-lethality attempters have greater impairment of reward learning, hampering the search for alternative solutions (34), but they have less delayed discounting (i.e., they can suppress the desire for immediate satisfaction in favor of delayed reward) (35) and perform better on an object alternation task, indicating greater executive control and response organization (25).”
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DTI studies of suicidal ideation are inconclusive.
“DTI studies of suicidal ideation are inconclusive (77, 83, 84).”
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Serotonergic release deficits in the ventral PFC and ACC are more prominent in high-lethality suicidal behavior and suicide death.
“4) serotonergic release deficits in the ventral PFC and ACC that are more prominent in high-lethality suicidal behavior and suicide death;”
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Recall of suicide episodes is associated with less activity in the dlPFC and dmPFC and greater activity in the parahippocampal gyrus and cuneus.
“Recall of suicide episodes (mental pain and suicide action) is associated with less activity in the dlPFC and dmPFC and greater activity in the parahippocampal gyrus and cuneus (101).”
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Resting-state fMRI indicates lower functional connectivity in adolescent and adult suicide attempters, predominantly in the default mode network.
“Resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) indicates lower functional connectivity in adolescent and adult suicide attempters, predominantly in the default mode network, which is implicated in self-referential processing and social cognition (85-87).”
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Compared with suicide nonattempters, suicide attempters with the same diagnosis show less activity in the dlPFC, rACC, dACC, thalamus, and insula during decision-making tasks.
“Compared with suicide nonattempters, suicide attempters having the same diagnosis manifest less activity in the dlPFC, rACC, dACC, thalamus, and insula while performing decision-making tasks (e.g., the Iowa Gambling Task) (95-99).”
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Suicide attempters have lower activity in the supramarginal gyrus and posterior insula during the cyberball task.
“Suicide attempters have lower activity in the supramarginal gyrus and posterior insula during the cyberball task, an fMRI experiment evoking reaction to social exclusion (103), perhaps reflecting distorted social perception.”
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Lower activity in the dACC and dlPFC is detected in attempters during executive function tasks.
“Lower activity in the dACC and dlPFC is also detected in attempters during tasks evaluating executive function (e.g., the go/no-go task) (100).”
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Higher-lethality suicide attempters have larger PFC and insula volumes than lower-lethality attempters and nonattempters.
“Higher-lethality suicide attempters have larger PFC and insula volumes compared with lower-lethality attempters and nonattempters (73), potentially related to superior planning abilities.”
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- Premisecitation
Low CSF 5-HIAA predicts suicide risk in depressed individuals, with an odds ratio of 4.6.
“Low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) predicts suicide risk in depressed individuals, with an odds ratio of 4.6 (see reference 108 for a review).”
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In mood disorders, a prior suicide attempt is associated with lower fractional anisotropy in frontal-subcortical connections.
“In mood disorders, a prior suicide attempt is associated with lower FA in frontal-subcortical connections (76-79).”
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Altered genome-wide DNA methylation occurs at several loci in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum and more globally in the brain of suicide decedents compared with controls.
“Altered genome-wide DNA methylation reveals alteration at several genetic loci in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and cerebellum, and more globally in the brain in suicide decedents compared with control subjects (62-64).”
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Immersion and reappraisal of negative autobiographical memories are associated with greater OFC activity in suicide attempters.
“Immersion and reappraisal of negative autobiographical memories are associated with greater OFC activity in suicide attempters (102).”
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- Premisecitation
A main feature of dysfunctional neural circuitry in suicidal behavior and ideation is a relationship between enhanced negative affective and self-referential processing networks and suicidal ideation.
“Although neuroimaging studies of suicidal behavior and ideation disagree about details, the main features of dysfunctional neural circuitry (Figure 1) include 1) a relationship of enhanced negative affective and self-referential processing networks (ventromedial prefrontal cortex [vmPFC], medial orbitofrontal cortex [OFC], rostral anterior cingulate cortex [rACC], insula, and ventral striatum) to”
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- Interpretationcitation
Up-regulated serotonin 1A receptors may result from a 5-HT1A gene promoter polymorphism that causes overexpression of autoreceptors.
“Up-regulated serotonin 1A receptors may result from a 5-HT1A gene promoter polymorphism that causes overexpression of autoreceptors as a result of less binding of inhibitory transcription factors in serotonin neurons (120, 121).”
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Expression of some glutamatergic genes is greater in suicide decedents with a history of major depression.
“Expression of some glutamatergic genes is greater in suicide decedents with a history of major depression (138).”
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Up-regulated postsynaptic cortical serotonin 2A receptors correlate with lifetime aggression severity.
“Other studies report up-regulated postsynaptic cortical serotonin 2A receptors that correlate with lifetime aggression severity (114).”
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Childhood adversity may sensitize norepinephrine release in response to a stressor in adulthood, as shown in rodents.
“Childhood adversity may sensitize norepinephrine release in response to a stressor in adulthood, as shown in rodents (128).”
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Greater raphe nucleus serotonin 1A receptor binding correlates with prior and future higher-lethality suicidal behavior.
“Greater raphe nucleus serotonin 1A receptor binding correlates with prior and future higher-lethality suicidal behavior (112, 119).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
Excessive norepinephrine release combined with fewer noradrenergic neurons may result in depletion of norepinephrine and lower CSF MHPG in future suicide attempters.
“Perhaps this excessive norepinephrine release, when combined with fewer noradrenergic neurons, is more likely to result in a depletion of norepinephrine and lower CSF MHPG in future suicide attempters (127).”
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Prodynorphin is elevated in the caudate nucleus in suicide decedents.
“Prodynorphin, the precursor to endogenous kappa opioid dynorphin, is elevated in the caudate nucleus in suicide decedents (146).”
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- Interpretationcitation
Suicide risk-related neuron deficits may be attributed to toxic effects of excessive allostatic load due to glucocorticoids and abnormal stress response.
“These suicide risk-related neuron deficits may also be attributed to toxic effects of the excessive allostatic load due to glucocorticoids and abnormal stress response (137).”
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- Premisecitation
Approaches to ameliorate external stressors have not been shown to prospectively influence risk of suicidal behavior.
“The amelioration of external stressors may be the goal of interventions by mental health professionals and social workers seeking to improve personal, family, and workplace relationships and to improve housing, nutrition, and employment status, but these approaches have not been shown to prospectively influence risk of suicidal behavior (10).”
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- Interpretationcitation
Regulation of inflammatory pathways may change with level of suicidal ideation and therefore risk.
“This suggests that regulation of inflammatory pathways may change with level of suicidal ideation and therefore risk (208).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [208] Suzuki H, 2019, Front Cell Neurosci source
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Targeting internal stressors by training primary care providers in the management of major depressive episodes prevents suicide.
“Targeting internal stressors by training primary care providers in the management of major depressive episodes prevents suicide (6).”
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Quinolinic and kynurenic acids are related to suicidal behavior.
“Quinolinic and kynurenic acids (which serve as an agonist and an antagonist of the excitotoxic glutamate receptors, respectively) are related to suicidal behavior (205-207).”
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Activated microglia and brain TSPO are linked to suicide risk independently of the presence of psychiatric disorders.
“Activated microglia (208, 209), the primary immune response cells in the brain, and brain translocator protein (TSPO) found in mitochondria of activated glial cells (210) are linked to suicide risk, independently of the presence of psychiatric disorders.”
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BDNF promoter/exon IV is hypermethylated in Wernicke's area in suicide decedents.
“BDNF promoter/exon IV, which plays a critical role in BDNF gene regulation (189), is hypermethylated in Wernicke’s area in suicide decedents (190).”
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- Interpretationreasoning
This may partly explain learning and memory components of the suicide diathesis.
“This may partly explain learning and memory components of suicide diathesis.”
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Epigenetic regulation of TrkB-T1 is reported in suicide decedents through promoter methylation affecting regulation by miRNA miR-185.
“Further, epigenetic regulation of TrkB-T1 (an astrocyte-specific variant of the BDNF receptor) is reported in suicide decedents through promoter methylation affecting regulation by miRNA miR-185 (192, 193).”
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Suicide prediction models based on computational analyses of electronic health records may help identify individuals with the highest risk for suicide at time of discharge.
“Suicide prediction models based on computational analyses of electronic health records may help identify individuals with the highest risk for suicide at time of discharge, the subgroup that would potentially benefit most from intensive treatment and follow-up (237, 238).”
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Intravenous ketamine rapidly reduces depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in hours instead of weeks.
“Intravenous ketamine is a rapidly acting treatment that robustly reduces depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in hours instead of weeks (130-133).”
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Antiapoptotic effects of lithium may increase gray matter volume in the dlPFC, where hypoactivity and cortical thinning are implicated in suicide risk.
“Antiapoptotic effects of lithium (226) may increase gray matter volume in the dlPFC, where hypoactivity and cortical thinning are implicated in suicide risk.”
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In a cited study, roughly 60% of people who said they had no suicidal ideation on weekly self-reports reported suicidal thoughts when prompted by smartphone EMA six times daily for one week.
“Around 60% of individuals denying suicidal ideation on weekly self-report measures reported suicidal thoughts using an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) technology that delivered questions on their smartphones six times a day over the same 1-week period (252).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [252] Gratch I, Depress Anxiety
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Suicide-specific heritability is associated with suicide diathesis-related traits.
“This suicide-specific heritability is associated with suicide diathesis–related traits (36, 250).”
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Means restriction works because it makes access to the most popular higher-lethality methods more difficult.
“Means restriction works because it seeks to make access to the most popular higher-lethality methods more difficult.”
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Most suicide attempts result from a decision to act made minutes earlier, even if the method was planned months or more ahead.
“Studies of survivors of suicide attempts indicate that most suicide attempts are the result of a decision to act that was made minutes earlier, even if the method was planned months or more ahead (243, 244).”
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The body of observations linking suicide-related diathesis components to neurobiological abnormalities supports the idea that suicidal behavior is not merely a symptom of a subset of psychiatric disorders but should be coded as a distinct mental disorder.
“Further, the body of observations linking the suicide-related diathesis components to neurobiological abnormalities as described above supports the idea that suicidal behavior is not merely a symptom of a subset of psychiatric disorders, but should be coded as a distinct mental disorder (251).”
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- Premisecitation
After seeking help for suicidal thoughts or low-lethality suicide attempts in the emergency department, discharged patients have an elevated suicide attempt rate.
“After seeking help for suicidal thoughts or low-lethality suicide attempts in the emergency department, discharged patients have an elevated suicide attempt rate.”
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EMA identifies a subgroup of suicidal individuals with highly variable severity of suicidal thoughts and stress-triggered spikes.
“EMA also identifies a subgroup of suicidal individuals who report a more highly variable severity pattern of suicidal thoughts and spikes of suicidal thoughts when stressed (253).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [253] Kleiman EM, 2018, Depress Anxiety source
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Systematic periodic outpatient assessment fails to detect suicidal ideation in many patients.
“Suicidal ideation, which usually precedes and may represent an alarm for imminent risk of a suicide attempt, goes unrecognized by even systematic periodic evaluation of outpatients.”
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Brief interventions and active outreach after discharge have been shown to reduce the postdischarge risk of suicidal behavior.
“Active outreach after discharge seeks the same goal, and both have been shown to reduce the postdischarge risk of suicidal behavior (7, 240-242).”
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Suicide is moderately heritable independently of the heritability of major psychiatric disorders.
“Suicide is moderately heritable independently of the heritability of major psychiatric disorders (45, 46).”
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Brief psychological and educational interventions are available for individuals presenting to the emergency department with acute suicidal crisis.
“A number of brief psychological and educational interventions are now available for use with individuals presenting to the emergency department with acute suicidal crisis (239).”
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- Interpretationcitation
The reduction of suicidal ideation by low-dose buprenorphine is probably mediated by modulation of emotional pain/psych-ache.
“probably through modulating emotional pain/psych-ache.”
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These EMA and passive sensing methods have not been replicated for predicting suicide risk.
“These approaches have promise, but they lack replicated data on prediction of suicidal behavior risk (263).”
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People who later die by suicide may not report suicidal thoughts while hospitalized.
“Future suicide decedents may deny suicidal thoughts as inpatients (265)”
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Such denial is more common during first assessments and in emergency departments, where patient and clinician are unfamiliar.
“and more so in initial evaluations and emergency department settings, when patients and clinicians are less known to each other (266).”
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- Interpretationcitation
Boosting dlPFC activity might lower suicide risk through better top-down control of cognition.
“suggesting that enhancing dlPFC activity may reduce suicide risk by improved top-down cognitive control.”
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Suicidal ideation variability is associated with mood instability.
“This pattern of suicidal ideation variability is associated with mood instability (254, 255)”
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- cites [255] Peters EM, Arch Suicide Res
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Celecoxib might help as an adjunct treatment for unipolar depression.
“Celecoxib, a selective inhibitor of the cyclooxygenase 2 enzyme, may be effective as an add-on treatment for unipolar depression (295).”
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Suicidal ideation variability is associated with a heightened stress response system.
“and a heightened stress response system (168)”
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Buprenorphine may reduce suicidal ideation.
“and may also reduce suicidal ideation (139, 140, 283, 285, 286).”
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Minocycline may reduce depressive symptoms.
“and may reduce depressive symptoms (294).”
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Buprenorphine is prescribed to prevent relapse in opioid use disorder.
“is used for relapse prevention in opioid use disorder (278).”
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Suicidal ideation variability is a stable trait that persists for 2 years.
“and it is a stable trait because it persists for 2 years (256).”
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Pairing EMA real-time data on suicidal thoughts and behavior with passive smartphone sensing permits study of very short-term suicide risk factors in emotional distress and social dysfunction domains.
“Combining EMA-collected real-time data on suicidal thoughts and behavior with “passive sensing,” which collects data from individuals’ smartphones, allows examination of the very short-term risk factors of suicide in multiple domains”
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In the reactive group, suicide attempts are equally lethal as in those with stable and severe suicidal ideation.
“The suicidal behavior in this reactive group is just as lethal as in patients with stable but pronounced suicidal ideation (257).”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Brain regions and networks linked to suicide risk by neuroimaging are reasonable targets for neuromodulation.
“Neuroimaging-delineated brain regions and networks involved in suicide risk represent plausible targets for neuromodulatory interventions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Some people may unconsciously deny suicidal urges.
“Others may be unconsciously using the defense mechanism of denial regarding suicidal impulses (268).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [268] Oquendo MA, 2003
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- Interpretationreasoning
A brain signature of suicidal ideation might serve as a risk biomarker even if the patient denies or does not recognize such thoughts.
“The identification of a neural signature of suicidal ideation could be a biomarker for suicide risk even when suicidal ideation is denied or unrecognized.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
A few case reports show similar effects in opioid use disorder patients on higher doses.
“Few case reports demonstrate similar effect in individuals with opioid use disorder using higher dosages (139, 285, 286).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Study design and conductcitation
Evidence for rTMS effects on suicidal ideation is preliminary, as most trials are small and uncontrolled.
“but results are preliminary because most studies have small sample sizes and lack control groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [287] source
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- Premisecitation
fMRI patterns for mental concepts distinguish suicidal ideators from attempters and healthy controls.
“fMRI-measured neural representation of mental concept representations differentiates suicidal ideators from suicide attempters and healthy control subjects (273).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [273] source
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- Premisecitation
In opioid-naive people, low-dose buprenorphine lowers suicidal ideation within two weeks relative to placebo.
“Compared with placebo, low-dose buprenorphine reduces suicidal ideation in 2 weeks in individuals who have never used opioids (140)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [140] source
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- Premisecitation
Inhibiting the dlPFC with low-frequency rTMS can make men take more risks in decisions.
“Inhibition of the dlPFC by low-frequency rTMS can increase risky decision making in males (288)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [288] source
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- Premisecitation
GSK3 promotes inflammation.
“Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3), an enzyme that promotes inflammation”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [296] source
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- Premisecitation
GSK3 is inhibited by lithium.
“and is inhibited by lithium (296).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [296] source
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- Premisecitation
GSK3 is linked to animal stress and aggression models.
“is linked to animal stress and aggression models”
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- Premisecitation
GSK3 levels are higher in the ventral prefrontal cortex of depressed people who died by suicide.
“is elevated in the ventral PFC of depressed suicide decedents”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [296] source
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- Premisecitation
The glucocorticoid receptor antagonist mifepristone and cortisol synthesis blockers metyrapone and ketoconazole have not shown clear antidepressant benefit.
“The glucocorticoid receptor antagonist mifepristone (297) and cortisol synthesis inhibitors such as metyrapone and ketoconazole (298) do not show distinct benefit for depression”
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- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
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PremisecitationImpaired decision making and related brain circuit changes are observed in healthy relatives of suicide decedents, consistent with familial transmission of an endophenotype for suicide risk.
“Impaired decision making (36) and related brain circuit changes (37) are also observed in healthy relatives of suicide decedents, consistent with familial transmission of an endophenotype for suicide risk.”
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PremisecitationLearning deficits in suicide attempters scale with attempt lethality and are partly explained by impaired cognitive control.
“These learning deficits scale with attempt lethality and are partially explained by impaired cognitive control (34), the most consistent deficit found in suicide attempters (17, 22, 24).”
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PremisecitationMemory deficits in suicide attempters include impaired working memory and long-term memory and a shift from specific to more general autobiographical memory.
“Memory deficits in suicide attempters include impaired working memory and long-term memory and a shift from specific to more general autobiographical memory (18, 23).”
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PremisecitationSuicide attempters exhibit less language fluency and learning.
“- Suicide attempters exhibit less language fluency and learning (38) and impaired deterministic learning in the context of complex unambiguous environments (39).”
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PremisecitationSubjective distress is linked to familial transmission of suicidal behavior and includes hopelessness and subjective depression, which are more severe in depressed suicide attempters than in depressed nonattempters.
“- Subjective distress is linked to familial transmission of suicidal behavior and encompasses hopelessness and subjective depression, which are more severe in depressed suicide attempters compared with depressed nonattempters (27).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] Mann JJ, 2016, Arch Suicide Res source
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Premisecitation§ A Brain-Centric Model of Suicidal BehaviorSuicidal ideation is much more common than suicidal behavior and often does not progress to behavior.
“Suicidal ideation is much more prevalent than suicidal behavior, and it often does not progress to suicidal behavior (15).”
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InterpretationcitationThwarted belongingness may deter help-seeking, amplify sensitivity to social rejection, and impair social integration, all of which enhance suicidal ideation and behavior.
“A perceived lack of reciprocally caring relationships, also known as thwarted belongingness, may deter help-seeking (41), amplify sensitivity to social rejection (42), and impair social integration (43), and all enhance suicidal ideation and behavior.”
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PremisecitationHigh-lethality attempters show less delayed discounting and perform better on an object alternation task, indicating greater executive control and response organization.
“High-lethality attempters have greater impairment of reward learning, hampering the search for alternative solutions (34), but they have less delayed discounting (i.e., they can suppress the desire for immediate satisfaction in favor of delayed reward) (35) and perform better on an object alternation task, indicating greater executive control and response organization (25).”
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PremisereasoningOther studies have reported lower rs-fMRI activity and functional connectivity, probably due to different outcome measures and heterogeneity of suicidal ideation.
“However, other studies have reported lower rs-fMRI activity and functional connectivity (85, 86, 92, 93), probably due to use of different outcome measures of rs-fMRI activity, for example, regional homogeneity, fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations among studies, and heterogeneity of suicidal ideation.”
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PremisecitationAdolescent suicidal behavior mostly involves smaller ventral PFC regions, particularly the OFC, which correlates with greater attempt lethality.
“Adolescent suicidal behavior mostly involves smaller ventral PFC regions, particularly the OFC (74), which correlates with greater attempt lethality (75).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [74] Auerbach RP, Biol Psychiatry
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- cites [75] source
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PremisecitationSuicide attempters have less OFC and rACC activity in response to positive facial expressions and greater lateral OFC activity in response to angry facial expressions.
“Suicide attempters also have less OFC and rACC activity in response to positive facial expressions (78) and greater lateral OFC activity in response to angry facial expressions (95, 97, 104).”
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InterpretationcitationSuicidal ideation-related increased frontal-subcortical connectivity may be confined to ideators who do not attempt suicide, because better executive control prevents acting on suicidal thoughts.
“Suicidal ideation–related increased frontal-subcortical connectivity may be confined to suicidal ideators who do not attempt suicide (94), because better executive control prevents acting on suicidal thoughts.”
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PremisecitationSuicidal ideation relates to greater rs-fMRI activity in the vmPFC and greater resting functional connectivity between the OFC and amygdala and between the posterior cingulate cortex and middle temporal gyrus.
“Suicidal ideation relates to greater rs-fMRI activity in the vmPFC (88) and greater resting functional connectivity between the OFC and amygdala (89) and between the posterior cingulate cortex and middle temporal gyrus (90), perhaps related to negative self-reflection or rumination (91).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenAbnormalities of glutamate and opioid systems may affect memory, learning, and reward mechanisms.
“5) abnormalities of glutamate and opioid systems that may affect memory, learning, and reward mechanisms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationStructural and functional deficits in dmPFC, dlPFC, vlPFC, and dACC correlate with subjective depression severity and contribute to less top-down control over vmPFC regions, leading to impaired decision making and suicidal behavior.
“2) structural and functional deficits in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC), and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) that correlate with severity of subjective depression (66) and contribute to less top-down control over vmPFC regions, resulting in impaired decision making and, in turn, suicidal behavior (”
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InterpretationcitationLower frontal-subcortical fractional anisotropy may indicate impaired top-down executive control, explaining correlations with attempt-related impulsivity and number of suicide attempts.
“Such findings may indicate impaired top-down executive control, explaining a correlation with attempt-related impulsivity (80) and number of suicide attempts (81, 82).”
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PremisecitationDeficient serotonin release is not due to serotonin biosynthesis, because suicide decedents have greater TPH2 expression per neuron and more brainstem serotonin neuron cell bodies.
“Deficient serotonin release is not due to serotonin biosynthesis, because suicide decedents have greater tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (the rate-limiting enzyme of serotonin synthesis) expression per neuron, and there are more brainstem serotonin neuron cell bodies (109, 110).”
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InterpretationcitationThe serotonin deficit likely involves less serotonin neuron firing and less release, because fatal and nonfatal suicide attempts are associated with up-regulated serotonin 1A autoreceptors.
“The serotonin deficit likely involves less serotonin neuron firing and less release, because fatal and nonfatal suicide attempts are associated with up-regulated serotonin 1A autoreceptors that are located on serotonin neuron cell bodies and proximal dendrites (111, 112).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenDifferential OFC activation to pleasant versus negative facial expressions may relate to excessive distress and social distortions.
“3) differential activation of the OFC to pleasant versus negative facial expressions, perhaps related to excessive distress and social distortions;”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationViolent attempters have greater caudate volume, and attempters with familial suicidal behavior have smaller volumes in temporal regions, dlPFC, and putamen.
“Violent attempters have greater caudate volume, and suicide attempters with familial suicidal behavior have smaller volumes in temporal regions, dlPFC, and putamen, compared with other subgroups of attempters (72).”
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PremisecitationSuicide decedents have smaller gray matter volume in the dlPFC and hippocampus.
“Suicide decedents have smaller gray matter volume in the dlPFC (68) and hippocampus (69, 70), perhaps related to impaired decision making and learning/memory functions, respectively.”
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PremisecitationAltered mu opioid receptor binding is related to suicide risk, perhaps via dysregulation of reward circuitry and social function.
“Altered mu opioid receptor binding is also related to suicide risk (40, 147), perhaps via dysregulation of reward circuitry and social function (40).”
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InterpretationcitationThe kappa opioid receptor system may play a role in negative affect associated with suicidal ideation and may explain the possible antisuicidal effects of the kappa antagonist buprenorphine.
“The kappa opioid receptor system may play a role in negative affect associated with suicidal ideation and may explain the possible antisuicidal effects of the kappa antagonist buprenorphine (139, 140).”
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PremisecitationAltered expression of NMDA, AMPA, and kainite glutamate receptors is linked to suicidal behavior and may play a role in the rapid-onset antidepressant and antisuicidal effects of ketamine.
“Altered expression of glutamate receptor N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), and kainite glutamate receptors is linked to suicidal behavior (129) and may play a role in the rapid-onset antidepressant and antisuicidal effects of ketamine (130-135).”
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PremisecitationSerotonin dysfunction is more prominent in higher-lethality suicidal behavior, indicating localized PFC hypofunction.
“Serotonin dysfunction is more prominent in higher-lethality suicidal behavior (117), indicating localized PFC hypofunction (118).”
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PremisecitationNonsuppression on the dexamethasone suppression test predicts suicide, but there is disagreement about nonfatal attempts.
“Nonsuppression on the dexamethasone suppression test, which assesses this HPA axis glucocorticoid receptor feedback loop, predicts suicide (151-153), but there is disagreement about nonfatal attempts (154-158).”
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- cites [156] Fountoulakis KN, 2004, Neuropsychobiology source
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InterpretationcitationChildhood adversity may both up-regulate HPA stress responses and reduce serotonin neuron firing in parallel; the former amplifies neuroinflammation and the latter dampens neurotrophic factors.
“Childhood adversity may both up-regulate HPA stress responses (122) and reduce serotonin neuron firing (108) in parallel (123), the former amplifying neuroinflammation (124) and the latter dampening neurotrophic factors (125).”
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PremisecitationGlucocorticoid receptors are subject to genetic effects via chaperone proteins such as SKA1 and FKBP5, as well as epigenetic changes observed after maternal deprivation in rats and in suicide decedents with childhood adversity.
“Glucocorticoid receptors are subject to genetic effects via chaperone proteins like SKA1 and FKBP5 (58, 148, 149), as well as epigenetic changes (i.e., methylation) observed in response to maternal deprivation in rats (150) and in suicide decedents with a history of childhood adversity (60).”
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PremisecitationKappa receptor agonists induce anxiogenic and dysphoric effects in humans and depressive-like behavior in animals.
“Kappa receptor agonists induce anxiogenic and dysphoric effects in humans (141-143) and depressive-like behavior in animals (i.e., increased immobility in the forced swim test) (144, 145).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [141] Pfeiffer A, 1986, Science source
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- cites [142] González D, 2006, Drug Alcohol Depend source
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- cites [143] Kumor KM, 1986, J Pharmacol Exp Ther
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- cites [144] Carlezon WA, 2006, J Pharmacol Exp Ther source
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- cites [145] source
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PremisecitationMouse studies show that greater expression of serotonin 1A autoreceptors produces less serotonin neuron firing and release and giving-up behavior in the tail suspension and forced swim tests.
“Mouse studies show that greater expression of these autoreceptors produces a biological phenotype of less serotonin neuron firing and release and a behavioral phenotype manifesting giving-up behavior in the tail suspension test and the forced swim test (113).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [113] Richardson-Jones JW, 2011, J Neurosci source
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InterpretationcitationChildhood adversity may produce a phenocopy by epigenetic effects in the promoter and thereby mediate the effect on suicidal behavior risk via less serotonin release.
“Childhood adversity may produce a phenocopy by epigenetic effects in the promotor and thereby mediate the effect on suicidal behavior risk via less serotonin release (108).”
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PremisecitationTSST studies find lower pretask baseline cortisol and blunted total cortisol output in suicide attempters compared with nonattempters, while heightened cortisol response to stress appears confined to attempters with higher impulsivity and aggression.
“TSST studies find lower pretask baseline cortisol (161, 162) and blunted total cortisol output (162, 163) in suicide attempters compared with nonattempters, while heightened cortisol response to stress appears confined to suicide attempters exhibiting higher levels of impulsivity and aggression (164).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationEnhanced glutamatergic NMDA-mediated transmission may improve memory consolidation but in excess may be neurotoxic.
“Enhanced glutamatergic NMDA-mediated transmission may improve memory consolidation (136) but in excess may be neurotoxic (137).”
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PremisecitationDepressed suicide attempters have lower urinary and plasma MHPG than controls, and CSF MHPG levels correlate negatively with lethality of future suicide attempts.
“Moreover, depressed suicide attempters have lower urinary and plasma levels of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHGP), a major metabolite of norepinephrine, compared with control subjects, and CSF 3-methoxy-4-hydroxphenylglycol (MHPG) levels correlate negatively with lethality of future suicide attempts (127).”
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PremisecitationDepressed suicide decedents have fewer brain-projecting noradrenergic neurons in the rostral locus coeruleus and higher β-adrenergic receptor binding in the PFC, consistent with less noradrenergic activity.
“Depressed suicide decedents have fewer brain-projecting noradrenergic neurons in the rostral locus coeruleus and higher β-adrenergic receptor binding in the PFC, both consistent with less noradrenergic activity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [126] Mathews DC, 2013, Transl Neurosci source
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PremisecitationLess presynaptic serotonin transporter binding in major depression is seen throughout most of the PFC, but in suicide an additional deficit is confined to the ventral PFC and ACC, suggesting a role in decision making.
“Less presynaptic serotonin transporter binding in major depression is seen throughout most of the PFC, but in suicide an additional deficit is confined to the ventral PFC and ACC, suggesting a role in decision making (115, 116).”
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InterpretationcitationLow brain BDNF in the hippocampus of suicide decedents may underlie its smaller size in suicide decedents and attempters and fewer mature granule neurons in its dentate gyrus.
“Low brain BDNF in the hippocampus of suicide decedents (180) may underlie its smaller size in suicide decedents (69) and attempters (194) and fewer mature granule neurons in its dentate gyrus (70).”
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PremisecitationPeripheral inflammatory biomarkers linked to suicide risk include elevated CRP, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, proinflammatory interleukins, cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-6, TNF-α, TGF-β1, and VEGF, and low levels of anti-inflammatory IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ in suicidal individuals.
“Peripheral inflammatory biomarkers linked to suicide risk include elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, proinflammatory interleukins (IL), cytokines that regulate the immune response (e.g., IL-1β and IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), tissue growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and low levels of the anti-inflammatory IL-2, IL-4,”
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PremisecitationA recent study reports no association between suicidal ideation severity and cytokine pathway marker mRNA expression.
“However, a recent study reports no association between suicidal ideation severity and cytokine pathway marker mRNA expression (217), and longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether fluctuating suicide risk correlates with severity of inflammation.”
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PremisecitationInfant maltreatment increases DNA methylation and reduces BDNF gene expression in the PFC.
“Infant maltreatment increases DNA methylation and reduces BDNF gene expression in the PFC (191).”
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PremisecitationThe dentate gyrus plays a role in emotion regulation through its connection to the PFC, which also shows lower neuron density and serotonin receptor binding in suicide decedents.
“Moreover, the dentate gyrus plays a role in emotion regulation through its connection to the PFC—which also shows lower neuron density and serotonin receptor binding in suicide decedents (68).”
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PremisecitationMajor depressive episodes account for about 60% of psychiatric diagnoses in suicide decedents, and major depressive episodes are mostly untreated at the time of death.
“Major depressive episodes account for about 60% of psychiatric diagnoses in suicide decedents (218), and major depressive episodes are mostly untreated at the time of death (219).”
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PremisecitationIL-1β negatively correlates, whereas IL-2 positively correlates, with OFC activation during experimental social exclusion.
“IL-1β negatively correlates, whereas IL-2 positively correlates, with OFC activation during experimental social exclusion (204), a known trigger of suicidal ideation and behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [204] Conejero I, 2019, Psychoneuroendocrinology source
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PremisecitationExpression of BDNF and BDNF receptor tyrosine kinase B genes is lower in suicide decedents, and plasma BDNF levels are low in suicide attempters.
“Expression of BDNF and BDNF receptor tyrosine kinase B genes is lower in suicide decedents (179-181), and plasma BDNF levels are low in suicide attempters (182), perhaps reflecting a systemic genomic effect on BDNF expression.”
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PremisecitationThe BDNF gene Met allele increases risk for suicidal behavior, particularly in depressed individuals and those exposed to early-life stress, where it may act by loss of ACC volume and altered decision-making or depression circuitry.
“The BDNF gene Met allele, a part of BDNF functional polymorphism (rs6265), increases the risk for suicidal behavior (183, 184), particularly in depressed individuals (185) and in those exposed to early-life stress (186, 187), where it may do so by loss of ACC volume (188) and altered decision-making or depression circuitry.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [183] Iga J, 2007, Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet source
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- cites [184] Schenkel LC, 2010, Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry source
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PremisecitationBDNF regulates neuron survival, plasticity, and synaptic function, plays an integral role in differentiation during development, is affected by stress, and is associated with major depression and suicidal behavior.
“Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates neuron survival, plasticity, and synaptic function (169-174), plays an integral role in differentiation during development (175, 176), is affected by stress (177), and is associated with major depression and suicidal behavior (178).”
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- cites [170] McAllister AK, 2001, Cell Mol Life Sci source
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- cites [171] Poo MM, 2001, Nat Rev Neurosci source
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- cites [174] Morse JK, 1993, J Neurosci source
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- cites [175] Alcántara S, 2006, Cereb Cortex source
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- cites [176] Engelhardt M, 2007, Eur J Neurosci source
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InterpretationcitationElevated glucocorticoids may result in loss of astrocytes and glutamate transporters, leading to pathological accumulation of glutamate and subsequent loss of neuronal density.
“Elevated glucocorticoids may result in loss of astrocytes and glutamate transporters. This, in turn, leads to a pathological accumulation of glutamate, with subsequent loss of neuronal density (137).”
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PremisecitationGreater suicidal ideation severity is associated with higher CRP, IL-6, and IL-10 levels and with activated microglia-related alterations of the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway.
“Greater suicidal ideation severity is associated with higher CRP (197), IL-6, and IL-10 levels (215) and with activated microglia-related alterations of the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway (216).”
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PremisecitationElevated IL-6 correlates positively with suicide attempters' impulsivity, linking proinflammatory responses to an impulsive, reactive endophenotype for suicidal behavior.
“Elevated IL-6 correlates positively with suicide attempters’ impulsivity (203), thereby linking proinflammatory responses to an impulsive, reactive endophenotype for suicidal behavior.”
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PremisecitationAntidepressants generally act on serotonergic and noradrenergic systems and may help prevent suicide by effects on internal stressors of depression and anxiety and on the diathesis.
“Antidepressants generally act on serotonergic and noradrenergic systems (220) and may help prevent suicide by effects on both the internal stressors of depression and anxiety and the diathesis by reducing hopelessness, reducing propensity for impulsive behavior in response to aggressive or suicidal urges and enhancing cognition.”
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InterpretationcitationThe anti-suicidal ideation effect of ketamine is only partly explained by its antidepressant action, and effects on memory and cognition may also play a role.
“The anti–suicidal ideation effect of ketamine is only partly explained by its antidepressant action, and effects on memory and cognition may also play a role (131-133).”
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InterpretationcitationForcing individuals to use a less lethal method may work because over 80% of suicide attempt survivors do not end up dying by suicide.
“Forcing individuals to use a less lethal method may work because over 80% of suicide attempt survivors do not end up dying by suicide (249).”
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InterpretationcitationDialectical behavior therapy prevents suicidal behavior without proven antidepressant benefit, indicating it works via problem-solving and stress management or diathesis elements such as dampening amygdala reactivity to negative emotions.
“Dialectical behavior therapy prevents suicidal behavior without proven antidepressant benefit, indicating that it works via problem-solving and stress management or elements of the diathesis such as dampening amygdala reactivity to negative emotions (235).”
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InterpretationcitationClozapine blocks dopamine 2 and serotonin 2A receptors, potentially mediating antiaggressive and anti-impulsive properties.
“Clozapine blocks dopamine 2 and serotonin 2A receptors, potentially mediating antiaggressive and anti-impulsive properties (227).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [227] Wilkowska A, 2019, Psychiatr Danub
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PremisecitationIntranasal ketamine or esketamine shows promise as anti-suicidal ideation treatment and is less invasive, but absorption is more erratic and it must be administered in medical settings.
“Intranasal ketamine (or esketamine) also shows promise as anti–suicidal ideation treatment (134) and is less invasive, but its absorption is more erratic, and, like intravenous ketamine, it must be administered in medical settings.”
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCBT improves capacities for cognitive regulation of emotion and is associated with decreased amygdala-associated negative emotional reactivity and enhanced activity of the emotion regulation network.
“CBT improves capacities for cognitive regulation of emotion and is associated with decreased activity in the amygdala-associated negative emotional reactivity (233) and enhanced activity of the emotion regulation network, including the subgenual ACC, medial PFC, and lingual gyrus (234).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAs a distinct diagnosis, suicide will be coded more consistently in medical records, raising clinician awareness, enhancing suicide research, and motivating targeting of the suicide-related diathesis for prevention and treatment.
“As a distinct diagnosis, it will be coded more consistently in medical records, raising clinician awareness of risk in individual patients, enhancing suicide research, and motivating the targeting of the suicide-related diathesis for prevention and treatment in suicidal patients.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationCognitive-behavioral therapy and dialectical behavior therapy can prevent suicide attempts.
“Most studied are cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and dialectical behavior therapy, and both can prevent suicide attempts (231, 232).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSwitching methods is difficult because restricting access to a common method such as household coal gas in the United Kingdom and firearms in Switzerland was followed by large reductions in suicide rates mainly due to those methods, and very little method substitution even over several years.
“Switching methods is known to be difficult because restricting access to a common method—such as household coal gas in the United Kingdom (245-247) and firearms in Switzerland (248)—was followed by large reductions in suicide rates, mainly due to those methods, and very little method substitution even over several years.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe suicide death rate is 300 times higher in the first week and 200 times higher in the first month among patients discharged from inpatient psychiatric care compared with the general population.
“The suicide death rate is 300 times higher in the first week and 200 times higher in the first month among patients discharged from inpatient psychiatric care compared with the general population (236).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [236] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe acute risk of acting on suicidal thoughts is brief, and the flexibility of a suicidal person in changing from one method to another is surprisingly limited.
“It takes advantage of two key observations. The acute risk of acting on suicidal thoughts is brief, and the flexibility of the suicidal person in changing from one method to another is surprisingly limited.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLithium and clozapine reduce risk of suicidal behavior independently of their effectiveness for mood and psychosis, indicating potential effects via the diathesis.
“Because both medications reduce the risk of suicidal behavior independently of how effective they are for mood and psychosis (225), this indicates potential effects via the diathesis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe specific mechanisms of lithium and clozapine antisuicidal diathesis effects are unknown and not readily discoverable because they have many pharmacologic effects.
“The specific mechanisms of their antisuicidal diathesis effects are unknown and are not readily discoverable because lithium and clozapine have many different pharmacologic effects.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationBuprenorphine shows antidepressant effects in both opioid use disorder and treatment-resistant depression.
“Buprenorphine has antidepressant effects when used for both opioid use disorder and treatment-resistant depression (279-284)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPatients may hide suicidal thoughts deliberately to block prevention efforts, or because they see no need for care.
“This may be done intentionally to thwart any intervention to prevent suicide, or because the person does not perceive a need for care (267).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [267] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationNeural decoding with machine learning has identified brain activity patterns for representing a deceased loved one and tracked unconscious thoughts about the deceased.
“Neural decoding is an approach where machine-learning methods have been used to identify the neural activity pattern involved in the mental representation of a deceased loved one and to track unconscious deceased-related thinking (272).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [272] Schneck N, 2017, Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBecause smartphones are widespread, huge personal data sets can be gathered, potentially enabling discovery of a phonotype or screenotype.
“The wide availability of smartphones allows accumulation of massive amounts of such personal-level data that may lead to identification of a “phonotype” (261) or “screenotype” (262).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe death/suicide IAT has predicted suicidal behavior in some prospective studies but not in others.
“The IAT predicts suicidal behavior in some prospective studies (269, 270), but not others (271).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationBuprenorphine acts as a partial agonist at mu opioid receptors and an antagonist at kappa opioid receptors.
“Buprenorphine, a mu opioid receptor partial agonist (274-276) and a kappa opioid receptor antagonist (277)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn healthy people, tDCS alters inhibitory control, planning, delay discounting, and risk taking.
“Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is another promising, low-risk, noninvasive neuromodulation technique that has effects on inhibitory control, planning, delay discounting, and risk taking in healthy individuals (289-291).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSome studies report that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation lowers suicidal ideation.
“Some researchers report a decrease of suicidal ideation following treatment with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) (287)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [287] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn animals, minocycline reduces microglial activation in prefrontal cortex and depression- and anxiety-like behaviors.
“minocycline decreases microglial activation in the PFC and depressive and anxiety-like traits in animals (293)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [293] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSelf-guided digital interventions delivered by smartphone might be as effective as in-person suicide prevention.
“In addition, smartphones have introduced self-guided digital interventions as novel suicide prevention methods that may prove as effective as face-to-face interventions (264).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [264] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSuicidal ideation is only modestly sensitive and has weak predictive value for suicide.
“otherwise suicidal ideation has modest sensitivity and low predictive value for suicide (259).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [259] McHugh CM, 2019, BJPsych Open source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBiological measures can provide biomarkers for personalized suicide prevention, monitoring changing risk, and assessing treatment response.
“A biological approach offers biomarkers to guide a personalized medical approach to prevention of suicide, a way to track fluctuating risk, and a way to track treatment effects.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The stress-diathesis model of suicidal behavior is a valid framework.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationnone givenBiomarkers would be especially valuable if they reveal risk when highly suicidal patients hide their plans and intent to prevent intervention.
“Such biomarkers assume greater importance if they can detect risk when very suicidal patients choose to withhold information of a plan and intent to suicide in order to avoid being thwarted.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Suicidal ideation usually precedes and may signal imminent risk of a suicide attempt.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenSearching for clinical and cognitive correlates of suicidal behavior, and understanding brain circuitry and pathogenesis in the stress-diathesis model, may reveal new prevention targets.
“New suicide prevention targets may be identified in seeking clinical and cognitive correlates of suicidal behavior and by an understanding of the altered brain circuitry and pathogenesis underlying the stress-diathesis model of suicidal behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Very short-term risk factors for suicide are poorly understood compared with distal/trait factors.
- Rests on an assumption: The stress-diathesis model of suicidal behavior is a valid framework.
The paper relies on this without support.
Very short-term risk factors for suicide are poorly understood compared with distal/trait factors.
“While many of the distal or trait risk and protective factors for suicide and their underlying biological processes are extensively studied, we know little of the very short-term risk factors.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Suicidal ideation usually precedes and may signal imminent risk of a suicide attempt.
“Suicidal ideation, which usually precedes and may represent an alarm for imminent risk of a suicide attempt”
The paper relies on this without support.
Inflammation is involved in the development of depression and suicidal behavior.
“The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of depression and suicidal behavior suggests use of anti-inflammatory drugs for depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No anti-inflammatory drug has been shown to improve suicidal ideation.
“None have been shown to improve suicidal ideation”
The paper relies on this without support.
Drugs aimed at HPA axis dysregulation have not been tested for suicide prevention.
“No drugs targeting HPA axis dysregulation have been evaluated for suicide prevention.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Opioid overdose deaths in the United States have risen sharply over the last twenty years.
“which has been spiking in the United States over the past two decades.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The stress-diathesis model of suicidal behavior is a valid framework.
“underlying the stress-diathesis model of suicidal behavior.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Dysfunctional neurotransmitter systems, such as abnormalities in serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate, and opioid receptor function, are associated with suicide risk.
“Dysfunctional neurotransmitter systems are also associated with suicide risk, such as abnormalities in serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate, and opioid receptor function (for a review, see Mann & Rizk, 2020).”
From Toward objective characterizations of suicide risk: A narrative review of laboratory-based cognitive and behavioral tasks (2023) · cites this paper as Mann & Rizk, 2020
Consistent with a stress-diathesis model, suicide should be understood as the result of a cumulation of multiple risk factors, some predisposing and some precipitating.
“Consistent with a stress-diathesis model,29 this underscores the need to understand suicide as the result of a cumulation of multiple risk factors,2 some of which are predisposing (such as sociodemographic background and family history) and some precipitating (such as incident diagnoses and life events).”
From Risk factors for suicide in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological autopsy studies (2022) · cites this paper as [29]
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Toward fine-grained phenotyping of suicidal behavior: the role of suicidal subtypes
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Ketamine as a Potential Treatment for Suicidal Ideation: A Systematic Review of the Literature
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The experience of social exclusion in women with a history of suicidal acts: a neuroimaging study
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Detecting suicidal thoughts: The power of ecological momentary assessment
Gratch, I., Choo, T., Galfalvy, H., Keilp, J. G., Itzhaky, L., Mann, J. J., Oquendo, M. A., & Stanley, B. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23043 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citationA meta-analysis of cytokines in suicidal behavior
Ducasse, D., Olié, E., Guillaume, S., Artéro, S., & Courtet, P. (2015) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2015.02.004 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Sullivan, G. M., Oquendo, M. A., Milak, M., Miller, J. M., Burke, A., Ogden, R. T., Parsey, R. V., & Mann, J. J. (2015) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2406 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citationDifferential binding properties of oripavines at cloned μ- and δ-opioid receptors
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The role of the kynurenine pathway in suicidality in adolescent major depressive disorder
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Network basis of suicidal ideation in depressed adolescents
Ordaz, S. J., Goyer, M. S., Ho, T. C., Singh, M. K., & Gotlib, I. H. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.021 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Human psychopharmacology of ketocyclazocine as compared with cyclazocine, morphine and placebo.
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Miller, J. M., Hesselgrave, N., Ogden, R. T., Sullivan, G. M., Oquendo, M. A., Mann, J. J., & Parsey, R. V. (2013) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.01.024 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citationA genome‐wide association study of suicidal behavior
Galfalvy, H., Haghighi, F., Hodgkinson, C., Goldman, D., Oquendo, M. A., Burke, A., Huang, Y., Giegling, I., Rujescu, D., Bureau, A., et al. (2015) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32330 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citationIncreased DNA methylation in the suicide brain
Haghighi, F., Xin, Y., Chanrion, B., O'Donnell, A. H., Ge, Y., Dwork, A. J., Arango, V., & Mann, J. J. (2014) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2014.16.3/jmann · Cited by 101 · see citing works
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Neuron density and serotonin receptor binding in prefrontal cortex in suicide
Underwood, M. D., Kassir, S. A., Bakalian, M. J., Galfalvy, H., Mann, J. J., & Arango, V. (2012) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1017/s1461145711000691 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
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Heightened aversion to risk and loss in depressed patients with a suicide attempt history
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A diffusion tensor imaging study of suicide attempters
Olvet, D. M., Peruzzo, D., Thapa-Chhetry, B., Sublette, M. E., Sullivan, G. M., Oquendo, M. A., Mann, J. J., & Parsey, R. V. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.01.002 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationIncreased CRP levels may be a trait marker of suicidal attempt
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Higher Postmortem Prefrontal 5-HT2A Receptor Binding Correlates with Lifetime Aggression in Suicide
Oquendo, M. A., Russo, S. A., Underwood, M. D., Kassir, S. A., Ellis, S. P., Mann, J. J., & Arango, V. (2006) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.037 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationAn inflammatory profile linked to increased suicide risk
Keaton, S. A., Madaj, Z. B., Heilman, P., Smart, L., Grit, J., Gibbons, R., Postolache, T. T., Roaten, K., Achtyes, E. D., & Brundin, L. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.100 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
The dexamethasone suppression test as a predictor of suicidal behavior in unipolar depression
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Self-citationInflammation and lithium: clues to mechanisms contributing to suicide-linked traits
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The decision neuroscience perspective on suicidal behavior: evidence and hypotheses
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Opiate Treatment in Depression Refractory to Antidepressants and Electroconvulsive Therapy
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Neuropsychological deficits in past suicide attempters with varying levels of depression severity
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
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Favril, L., Yu, R., Uyar, A., Sharpe, M., & Fazel, S. (2022) · Evidence Based Mental Health · doi:10.1136/ebmental-2022-300549 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
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Self-citationOn the genetic and environmental relationship between suicide attempt and death by suicide
Edwards, A. C., Ohlsson, H., Mościcki, E., Crump, C., Sundquist, J., Lichtenstein, P., Kendler, K. S., & Sundquist, K. (2021) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20121705 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Genetic contributions to suicidal thoughts and behaviors
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Let’s Move Towards Precision Suicidology
Courtet, P., & Saiz, P. A. (2025) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-025-01605-9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
From psychache to neuroplasticity: A unified rescue-repair model of Ketamine’s anti-suicidal action
Domany, Y., & Solomon-Shashua, A. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106804 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mann, J. J., & Rizk, M. M.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2020-10-01
- Volume
- 177
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 902-916
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- PMC
- PMC7676389
- OpenAlex
- W3090935559
- Semantic Scholar
- 53c097873a35a4e75ad032963458a90647e6e837
- Cited by
- 214
- References
- 300
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 53 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 8.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (P50MH090964)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- suicidal behavior, suicide, brain, neurobiology of suicide, suicide risk
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Firearms, Humans, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted, United States, Suicidal Ideation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.
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