Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Essential Oils: A Short Review

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Indirect methods study the ability of an antioxidant to scavenge free radicals, which is not associated with real oxidative degradation.

“The indirect method studies the ability of antioxidant to scavenge some free radicals, which is not associated with the real oxidative degradation [29].”

• cites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Primary antioxidants can donate a hydrogen atom rapidly to a lipid radical, forming a new, more stable radical.

“Primary antioxidants are able to donate a hydrogen atom rapidly to a lipid radical, forming a new radical, which is more stable.”

• cites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. sourceNot checked yet

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Essential oils that scavenge free radicals can act as anti-inflammatory agents because inflammation involves an oxidative burst.

“If essential oils are able to scavenge some free radicals, they can also act as anti-inflammatory agents, because one of the inflammatory responses is the oxidative burst that occurs in diverse cells (monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages).”

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Nitric oxide is produced in large quantities by inducible nitric oxide synthase in activated macrophages and neutrophils during defence and immunological reactions.

“Nitric oxide is produced in large quantities by the inducible nitric oxide synthases (iNOS) in activated macrophages and neutrophils during defence and immunological reactions.”

• cites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [23] Kostka, 1995, Free radicals (nitric oxide), Anal. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [24] Nagano, 1999, Practical methods for detection of nitric oxide, Luminescence sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [25] Miyasaka, 1997, Nitric oxide and inflammatory arthritides (minireview), Life Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Hydrogen peroxide can be reduced by transition metal ions to generate hydroxyl radical, which can react with polyunsaturated fatty acids to produce peroxyl radicals.

“Hydrogen peroxide can then also be reduced by transition metal ions generating the hydroxyl radical (HO°), one of the strongest oxidizing agents that can rapidly react with polyunsaturated fatty acids, resulting the production of peroxyl radicals (ROO•).”

• cites [18] Babior, 2004, NADPH oxidase, Curr. Opin. Immunol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [19] Quinn, 2004, Structure and regulation of the neutrophil respiratory burst oxidase: comparison with nonphagocyte oxidases, J. Leukocyte Biol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [20] Fridovich, 1997, Superoxide anion radical (O2•-), superoxide dismutases, and related matter, J. Biol. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [21] Chen, 1999, Hydroxyl-radical production in physiological reaction. A novel function of peroxidase, Eur. J. Biochem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Essential oils may play a role in prevention of brain dysfunction, cancer, heart disease, and immune system decline by scavenging free radicals.

“Moreover, essential oils being also able of scavenging free radicals may play an important role in some disease prevention such as brain dysfunction, cancer, heart disease and immune system decline.”

• cites [16] Aruoma, 1998, Free radicals, oxidative stress, and antioxidants in human health and disease, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [17] Kamatou, 2010, A review of the application and pharmacological properties of α-bisabolol and α-bisabolol-rich oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. sourceNot checked yet

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Lipid oxidation can be generated via three pathways: non-enzymatic free radical-mediated chain reactions, non-enzymatic non-radical photo-oxidations, and enzymatic reactions.

“Lipid oxidation is a complex reaction that can be generated via three different pathways: 1. Non-enzymatic free radical-mediated chain reactions; 2. Non-enzymatic, non-radical photo-oxidations; 3. Enzymatic reactions [5].”

• cites [5] Miguel, 2010, Antioxidant activity of medicinal and aromatic plants, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Direct and indirect methods have been applied to determine the chain-breaking antioxidant activity of natural products.

“Direct and indirect methods have been applied to determine the chain-breaking antioxidant activity of natural products.”

• cites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Direct methods for determining antioxidant activity are based on studying the effect of a tested product containing antioxidants on the oxidative degradation of a testing system.

“Direct methods are based on studying the effect of a tested product (e.g. food) containing antioxidants on the oxidative degradation of a testing system.”

• cites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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ROS and RNS are generated in phagocytes to neutralise invading organisms and have an important role in host defence.

“ROS and RNS are generated in phagocytes in order to neutralise the invading organisms, having therefore an important role in the host defence mechanism.”

• cites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Peroxynitrite is formed by phagocytes to kill invading microorganisms, but at high concentrations can oxidise host biomolecules by nitration, causing cellular damage responsible for diverse diseases.

“Peroxynitrite is formed by phagocytes for killing invading microorganisms, nevertheless if in high concentrations can oxidise several host biomolecules by nitration with the consequent cellular damages being responsible for diverse diseases [26].”

• cites [26] Halliwell, 1997, What nitrates tyrosine? Is nitrotyrosine specific as a biomarker of peroxynitrite formation in vivo?, FEBS Lett. sourceNot checked yet

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Secondary antioxidants react with initiating radicals, inhibit initiating enzymes, or reduce oxygen level without generating reactive radical species.

“Secondary anti-oxidants react with the initiating radicals (or inhibit the initiating enzymes), or reduce the oxygen level (without generating reactive radical species).”

• cites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. sourceNot checked yet

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TBARS is representative of a rather late stage of lipid oxidation, when the oxidation substrate has undergone substantial transformation.

“However, TBARS is representative of a rather late stage of lipid oxidation, when the oxidation substrate has undergone substantial transformation [29].”

• cites [29] Roginsky, 2005, Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food, Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Secondary antioxidants can retard radical initiation by deactivating singlet oxygen, absorbing UV light, scavenging oxygen, chelating metals, or inhibiting enzymes such as peroxidases, NADPH oxidase, and xanthine oxidase.

“This can be performed by deactivating high energy species (singlet oxygen); absorbing UV light; scavenging of oxygen; chelating metal that catalyses free radical reaction, or inhibiting enzymes, such as peroxidases, NADPH oxidase, xanthine oxidase, among other oxidative enzymes [28].”

• cites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. sourceNot checked yet

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The antioxidant ability of essential oils has been evaluated using several methods.

“The antioxidant ability of the essential oils has also been evaluated using several methods.”

• cites [5] Miguel, 2010, Antioxidant activity of medicinal and aromatic plants, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Hydrogen peroxide can oxidise halide ions to hypochlorous acid, which can react with amines to produce chloramines, some of which are very toxic.

“Peroxide hydrogen can also oxidise halide ions (Cl-) to hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is a strong oxidant that can react with amines producing chloramines, some of them being very toxic [18,19,20,21,22].”

• cites [18] Babior, 2004, NADPH oxidase, Curr. Opin. Immunol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [19] Quinn, 2004, Structure and regulation of the neutrophil respiratory burst oxidase: comparison with nonphagocyte oxidases, J. Leukocyte Biol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [20] Fridovich, 1997, Superoxide anion radical (O2•-), superoxide dismutases, and related matter, J. Biol. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [21] Chen, 1999, Hydroxyl-radical production in physiological reaction. A novel function of peroxidase, Eur. J. Biochem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Antioxidants may act as physical barriers, chemical traps/sinks, catalytic systems, metal-ion binders/inactivators, and chain-breaking antioxidants.

“Antioxidants may act as physical barriers to prevent ROS generation or ROS access to important biological sites (UV filters, cell membranes); chemical traps/sinks that “absorb” energy and electrons, quenching ROS (carotenoids, anthocyanidins); catalytic systems that neutralize or divert ROS [antioxidant enzymes SOD (superoxide dismutase), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase]; binding/inactivation”

• cites [27] Karadag, 2009, Review of methods to determine antioxidant capacities, Food Anal. Methods sourceNot checked yet

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Nitric oxide can exert toxicity by generating peroxynitrite anion after reacting with superoxide anion radical.

“However this reactive species can also exerts its toxicity by generating the peroxynitrite anion after reacting with the superoxide anion radical [22,23,24,25].”

• cites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [23] Kostka, 1995, Free radicals (nitric oxide), Anal. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [24] Nagano, 1999, Practical methods for detection of nitric oxide, Luminescence sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [25] Miyasaka, 1997, Nitric oxide and inflammatory arthritides (minireview), Life Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Based on their mode of action, antioxidants can be classified as primary, secondary, or co-antioxidants.

“Therefore, and based on their mode of action, the antioxidants can be classified as primary, secondary or co-antioxidants.”

• cites [28] Singh, 2008, In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview, Food Rev. Int. sourceNot checked yet

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Supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation of Thymus vulgaris volatile oil both yielded p-cymene, γ-terpinene, linalool, thymol and carvacrol as main components, with percentages changing by method but p-cymene and thymol dominating in both.

“The main components in both cases were p-cymene, γ-terpinene, linalool, thymol and carvacrol. The percentages changed according to the method of extraction used, nevertheless p-cymene and thymol dominated in both cases.”

• cites [60] Grosso, 2010, Composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris volatiles: comparison between supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation, J. Sep. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Origanum acutidens essential oil reached an inhibition percentage of 65%, in contrast to 100% for BHT, despite its high carvacrol content.

“In spite of the high percentage of carvacrol present in the oil, the inhibition percentage only reached 65%, in contrast to the 100% of BHT.”

• cites [50] Goze, 2010, In vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antispasmodic activities and the composition of the essential oil of Origanum acutidens (Hand.-Mazz.) letswaart, J. Med. Food sourceNot checked yet

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In the GC method for malonaldehyde, Thymus vulgaris and Eugenia caryophyllus oils possessed the strongest antioxidant activity, comparable to α-tocopherol.

“This method was followed by [43] that demonstrated the oils of Thymus vulgaris and Eugenia caryophyllus possessed the strongest activity, even comparable to that of α-tocopherol.”

• cites [43] Wei, 2010, Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected essential oils, J. Agr. Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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In the TBARS assay with egg yolk substrate, all five tested Mediterranean spice essential oils (Thymus vulgaris, Eugenia caryophyllus, Origanum vulgare, Salvia officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis) had antioxidant activity, with Thymus vulgaris oil showing the best activity, close to BHT.

“All essential oils tested (Thymus vulgaris L., [Eugenia caryophyllus (C. Spreng) Bull et Hare], Origanum vulgare L., Salvia officinalis L. and Rosmarinus officinalis L.) had antioxidant activity, but Thymus vulgaris oil presented the best activity, close to that verified for BHT.”

• cites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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DPPH radical reacts with antioxidants mainly by fast electron transfer from the sample to DPPH radical; hydrogen abstraction from the sample is marginal because it occurs very slowly and depends on the hydrogen-bond accepting solvent.

“However, more recent studies have shown that what occurs is mainly a fast electron transfer from the sample to DPPH radical. The abstraction of hydrogen from the sample by DPPH radical is marginal, because it occurs very slowly and depends on the hydrogen-bond accepting solvent.”

• cites [5] Miguel, 2010, Antioxidant activity of medicinal and aromatic plants, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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The inhibition percentage of Hymenocrater longiflorus essential oil (66.4%) was close to that of the non-polar chloroformic sub-fraction (69.1%), which had the best activity.

“The precentage of inhibition was even close (66.4%) to those found for the non-polar-sub-fraction (chloroformic) (69.1%), which presented the best activity.”

• cites [47] Ahmadi, 2010, Chemical composition, in vitro antimicrobial, antifungal and antioxidant activities of the essential oil and methanolic extract of Hymenocrater longiflorus Benth., of Iran, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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Salvia eremophila essential oil had an inhibition percentage about one third of BHT, while methanolic extracts of the same plant had activities comparable to BHT.

“The percentage inhibition of Salvia eremophila Boiss. oil was of about one third of that of BHT, in contrast to the methanolic extracts of the same plant, which presented activities comparable to that of BHT.”

• cites [48] Ebrahimabadi, 2010, Essential oil composition and antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of the aerial parts of Salvia eremophila Boiss. from Iran, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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Amomum tsao-ko essential oil had weak antioxidant activity in the TBARS method, attributed to its low phenolic content.

“They found weak antioxidant activity, as expected by the authors, due to the low phenolic content of the oils.”

• cites [56] Yang, 2010, Cytotoxic, apoptotic and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Amomum tsao-ko, Bioresour. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

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Ocimum sanctum essential oil decreased high levels of TBARS in cardiac and liver tissues of rats fed a high-cholesterol diet, protecting them against stress-induced oxidation.

“The oils were able to decrease the high levels of TBARS either in cardiac or liver tissues, protecting them against stress induced oxidation.”

• cites [58] Suanarunsawat, 2010, Antioxidant activity and lipid-lowering effect of essential oils extracted from Ocimum sanctum L. leaves in rats fed with a high cholesterol diet, J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. sourceNot checked yet

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The β-thujone-rich Artemisia herba-alba oil showed the best inhibition percentage (12.5%), much lower than BHA (89.2%).

“The β-thujone-rich oil showed the best inhibition percentage (12.5%), nevertheless much lower than BHA (89.2%).”

• cites [45] Mighri, 2010, Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Artemisia herba-alba essential oil cultivated in Tunisian arid zone, C.R. Chim. sourceNot checked yet

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Majorana hortensis essential oil had appreciable antioxidant activity probably ascribable to carvacrol with positive synergism with other components.

“The essential oil of Majorana hortensis L. had appreciable antioxidant activity probably ascrible to carvacrol with positive synergism with other components [66].”

• cites [66] Martino, 2010, Chemistry, antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal activities of volatile oils and their components, Nat. Prod. Commun.Not checked yet

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In the Rancimat method with lard, Thymus vulgaris and Origanum vulgare L. oils showed the best antioxidant activity index, but less than BHT.

“Their results showed that the oils of Thymus vulgaris and Origanum vulgare L. showed the best antioxidant activity index, as determined by the Rancimat method, but less than the activity of BHT (synthetic standard).”

• cites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Basil oil, a good antioxidant in the conjugated diene assay, had only moderate activity in the malonaldehyde GC test.

“Basil oil, that was considered a good antioxidant when the activity was measured through the conjugated diene assay, did not stand out in this test, in which was only considered as possessing moderate activity.”

• cites [43] Wei, 2010, Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected essential oils, J. Agr. Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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For Foeniculum vulgare essential oils, at concentrations above 750 mg/L (aerial parts) and above 1,000 mg/L (seeds), antioxidant activity decreased, suggesting a pro-oxidant activity independent of trans-anethole or methyl chavicol richness.

“Aerial parts and seeds of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. oils possess different chemical compositions, nevertheless in what concerns the antioxidant activity, the authors in [57] found that for higher concentrations of essential oils (>750 mg/L for the aerial parts and > 1,000 mg/L for seeds) a decrease of the activity was observed, suggesting that high concentrations of essential oils possess a pro-oxi”

• cites [57] Miguel, 2010, Foeniculum vulgare essential oils: chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, Nat. Prod. Commun.Not checked yet

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Olea europaea cv. Chemlali leaf oil from Tunisia possesses low antioxidant activity compared to BHT, because its main components are α-pinene and 2,6-dimethyloctane, non-phenolic compounds.

“Another example is the oil of leaves of Olea europaea L. cv. Chemlali from Tunisia that also possesses low activity when compared to BHT [70], because the main components were α-pinene and 2,6-dimethyloctane, that is, non-phenolic compounds.”

• cites [70] Haloui, 2010, Pharmacological activities and chemical composition of the Olea europaea L. leaf essential oils from Tunisia, J. Food Agr. Environ.Not checked yet

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Myrtus communis var. italica leaf and flower oils had the best antioxidant activities among the plant parts, but were inferior to BHT and BHA.

“Leaf and flower oils had the best antixidant activities, nevertheless inferior to those of BHT and BHA.”

• cites [46] Wannes, 2010, Antioxidant activities of the essential oils and methanol extracts from myrtle (Myrtus communis var. italica) leaf, stem and flower, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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An oil rich in phenolic components (oregano) and one without great levels of these components (thyme) presented similar Rancimat activities, in contrast to TBARS, in which thyme possessed the best activity.

“In this case, an oil rich in phenolic components (oregano) and the other one (thyme) without great levels of these components presented similar activities, in contrast to that reported for the TBARS, in which thyme possessed the best activity [52].”

• cites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Origanum vulgare subsp. glandulosum oils from different Tunisian locations showed different but always good DPPH scavenging abilities; results depended on percentage of phenolic compounds (thymol).

“Diverse oils obtained from Origanum vulgare L. subsp. glandulosum (Desf.) collected at different locations of Tunisia showed different but always good abilities for scavenging DPPH radicals. Such results depended on the percentage of phenolic compounds (thymol) present in the oils [71].”

• cites [71] Mechergui, 2010, Essential oils of Origanum vulgare L. subsp. glandulosum (Desf.) letswaart from Tunisia: chemical composition and antioxidant activity, J. Sci. Food Agr. sourceNot checked yet

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The chemical composition of Thymus vulgaris oils differs between reports, showing the importance of evaluating the chemical composition of samples.

“It is also noteworthy to stress the difference in the chemical composition of Thymus vulgaris oils reported by [52,60], showing therefore the importance of the evaluation of the chemical composition of samples.”

• cites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [60] Grosso, 2010, Composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris volatiles: comparison between supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation, J. Sep. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Diverse methods of antioxidant evaluation may give rise to different results, showing the importance of using several methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of samples.

“This is a good example in which diverse methods of antioxidant evaluation may give rise different results, showing therefore the importance of using several methods to evaluate the enatioxidant activity of samples.”

May combine two claims.

Capparis spinosa and Crithmum maritimum essential oils from Dalmatia at 1 g/L had lower ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation than BHA but close to BHT in the TBARS method.

“The evaluation of the antioxidant activities of essential oils from Capparis spinosa L. and Crithmum maritimum L. from Dalmatia (Croatia) by different methods, showed that using TBARS method, the oils presented at 1 g/L (the highest concentration tested) lower ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation than BHA, but close to that of BHT.”

• cites [55] Blazevic, 2010, Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of essential oils from caper (Capparis spinosa) and sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum) by different methods, J. Food Biochem. sourceNot checked yet

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Satureja intricata had ability to scavenge both DPPH and ABTS, whereas Satureja obovata did not; attributed to thymol and precursors p-cymene and γ-terpinene along with borneol in S. intricata.

“For example, Satureja intricata Lange had ability for scavenging both DPPH and ABTS, whereas Satureja obovata Lag. did not possess such ability [77]. This behaviour could be attributed to the presence of thymol and its precursors p-cymene and γ-terpinene, along with borneol in Satureja intricata.”

• cites [77] Jordan, 2010, Chemical composition and antiradical activity of the essential oil from Satureja intricata, S. obovata; and their hybrid Datureja x delpozoi, Nat. Prod. Commun.Not checked yet

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The chelating activity of myrtle flower oil is explained by eugenol and methyl eugenol, dihydroxylated compounds necessary to form chelated Fe2+; leaf and stem oils with 1,8-cineole and terpinen-4-ol, monohydroxylated, are unable to chelate ferrous ions.

“The authors [46] explained this activity to the presence of eugenol and methyl eugenol in its essential oil, whereas these two components only belong to a minor fraction of leaf and stem essential oils. These dihydroxylated compounds would be necessary to form chelated Fe2+. Leaf and stem oils had as main components 1,8-cineole and terpinen-4-ol, monohydroxylated compounds that would be unable to”

• cites [46] Wannes, 2010, Antioxidant activities of the essential oils and methanol extracts from myrtle (Myrtus communis var. italica) leaf, stem and flower, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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Eugenia caryophyllus essential oil exhibited higher DPPH and FRAP activity than the volatile aglycone fraction obtained after enzymatic hydrolysis.

“The antioxidant measurement by DPPH and FRAP methods showed that the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllus exhibited higher activity than the volatile aglycone fraction obtained after enzymatic hydrolysis with β-glucosidase from bitter almonds of the extract and further extraction from the aqueous layer with n-pentane [80].”

• cites [80] Politeo, 2010, Comparison of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of glycosidically bound and free volatiles from clove (Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb.), J. Food Biochem. sourceNot checked yet

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Thymus proximus oil was more effective than Thymus marschallianus in hydroxyl radical scavenging; both activities were dose-dependent and the oils were mainly constituted by thymol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene.

“The ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals of the essential oils of Thymus marschallianus and Thymus proximus were evaluated using the safranine method and the authors reported that the latter oil was more effective than the former. The activity of both oils were dose-dependent and they were mainly constituted by thymol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene [54].”

• cites [54] Jia, 2010, Chemical composition and antioxidant, antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of Thymus marschallianus Will. and Thymus proximus Serg, J. Food Sci sourceNot checked yet

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Rosmarinus officinalis and Salvia officinalis essential oils showed the highest chelating Fe2+ values at all concentrations; all oils studied were better chelators of Fe2+ than ascorbic acid and BHT.

“At all concentrations assayed Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia officinalis essential oils showed the highest values for chelating Fe2+. All the oils studied were better chelators of Fe2+ than ascorbic acid and BHT, used as references [52].”

• cites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils may be attributed not only to their antioxidant activities but also to their interactions with signalling cascades involving cytokines and regulatory transcription factors, and on the expression of pro-inflammatory genes.

“The anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils may be attributed not only to their antioxidant activities but also to their interactions with signalling cascades involving cytokines and regulatory transcription factors, and on the expression of pro-inflammatory genes.”

May combine two claims.

Foeniculum vulgare essential oils from aerial parts or fruits had hydroxyl radical scavenging always less than 50% at 100-2,000 mg/mL; mannitol reference showed similar scavenging at ≈2,000 mg/mL; only higher concentrations presented >50%.

“The capacity of the essential oils obtained from the aerial parts or from the fruits of Foeniculum vulgare for scavenging hydroxyl radicals was always less than 50%, at the concentrations assayed (100-2,000 mg/mL) [57]. Mannitol, the reference used in this assay, showed a similar scavenging percentage at ≈2,000 mg/mL. Only higher concentrations presented percentages >50%.”

• cites [57] Miguel, 2010, Foeniculum vulgare essential oils: chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, Nat. Prod. Commun.Not checked yet

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Ennajar et al. found highest and lowest ABTS-scavenging activities in berries of Juniperus phoeniceae; oven-drying was best for leaf and berry oils, followed by sun-dried and shade-dried; variability seemed related to chemical composition.

“They found the highest and the lowest activities in the same part of the plant (berries). Considering the drying method used, oven-drying was the best method to obtain an important activity for leaf and berry oils, followed by sun-dried essential oils and shade-dried samples. Such variability seemed to be related to the chemical composition of the oils, wich having a similar profile, the main”

• cites [75] Ennajar, 2010, The influence of organ, season and drying method on chemical composition and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Juniperus phoenica L. essential oils, essential oils. J. Sci. Food Agr. sourceNot checked yet

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Two COX isoforms exist; COX-1 is constitutive, whereas COX-2 protein is only slightly expressed in most normal mammalian tissues and is induced by physical, chemical, and biological stimuli including UV light, dioxin, and LPS.

“Two isoforms of COX, COX-1 and COX-2, have been reported. COX-1 is a constitutive enzyme whilst COX-2 protein is only slightly expressed in most normal mammalian tissues in response to physical, chemical and biological stimuli, including UV light exposure, dioxin and LPS (lipopolyssacharide) insult [96].”

• cites [96] Murakami, 2007, Targeting NOX, iNOS and COX-2 in inflammatory cells: chemoprevention using food phytochemicals, Int. J. Cancer sourceNot checked yet

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Thymus vulgaris oil had the best activity against lipid oxidation, whereas Eugenia caryophyllus oil was the most potent DPPH scavenger, even better than ascorbic acid and BHT; in the Rancimat test, Origanum vulgare was the best oil but worse than BHT.

“In this assay, the authors found that the Thymus vulgaris oil had the best activity against lipid oxidation, whereas in the DPPH method, the authors found that Eugenia caryophyllus oil was the most potent scavenger of DPPH free radicals, even better than the standards ascorbic acid and BHT. The same authors also used the Rancimat test, and in that ase, the best oil was that of Origanum vulgare,”

• cites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Arachidonic acid is released from cell membranes by phospholipase A2 under inflammatory stimuli and is metabolised by cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways into eicosanoids including prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxane A2.

“Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is released from cell membranes by phospholipase A2 under the stimulus of several factors associated with inflammation. The same fatty acid is metabolised by cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways in different eicosanoids such as prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotrienes (LTs) in diverse cells and thromboxane A2 in platlets [22].”

• cites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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The highest DPPH radical scavenging was in June for male Pistacia atlantica oils and September-October for female oils; high reducing power was in June for male and August for female; female oil antioxidant activity was almost ten times higher than ascorbic acid in FRAP.

“The highest antioxidant capacity to scavenge free DPPH radicals was reached in the month of June for male oils and during the months of September - October for the female oils. The high reducing power for male oil was detected during the month of June and for the female oil was in August. The antioxidant activity of the female oil was almost ten times higher than ascorbic acid in the FRAP assay [”

• cites [81] Gourine, 2010, Seasonal variation of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of essential oil from Pistacia atlantica Desf. leaves, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. sourceNot checked yet

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Carrageenan-induced mouse paw oedema is frequently used to determine anti-inflammatory activity of plant extracts and essential oils.

“Carrageenan-induced mouse paw oedema is frequently used to determine the anti-inflammatory activity of diverse bioactive compounds such as plant extracts and essential oils [87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95].”

• cites [87] Santos, 2000, Antiinflammatory and antinociceptive effects of 1,8-cineole a terpenoid oxide present in many plant essential oils, Phytother. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [88] Hajhashemi, 2004, Black cumin seed essential oil, as a potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug, Phytother. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [89] Oyemitamn, 2008, Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil of Dennettia tripetala G. Baker (Annonaceae) in rodents, Afr. J. Trad. CAMNot checked yet

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• cites [90] Lino, 2005, Evaluation of antinociceptive and antiinflammatory activities of the essential oil (EO) of Ocimum micranthum Willd. from Northeastern Brazil, Phytother. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [91] Koppel, 2008, Anti-inflammatory effects of thyme essential oil in mice, Acta Vet. Brno. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [92] Apel, 2010, Anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils from leaves of Myrciaria tenella and Calycorectes sellowianus, Pharm. Biol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [93] Mendes, 2010, Evaluation of the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of the essential oil of Lippia gracilis leaves, J. Ethnopharmacol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [94] Kirimer, 2006, Biological activity and composition of the essential oils of Achillea schischkinii Sosn. and Achillea aleppica D.C. subsp. aleppica, J. Agr. Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [95] Hajhashemi, 2003, Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill, J. Ethnopharmacol. sourceNot checked yet

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Amomum tsao-ko oil had low antioxidant activity by TBARS, weak DPPH scavenging, and low ferric reducing power, mainly due to low phenolic content.

“Amomum tsao-ko oil with low antioxidant activity measured through the TBARS method [70], as reported above, also had weak ability for scavenging DPPH free radicals and low ferric reducing power, mainly due to the low phenolic content of the oils [56].”

• cites [70] Haloui, 2010, Pharmacological activities and chemical composition of the Olea europaea L. leaf essential oils from Tunisia, J. Food Agr. Environ.Not checked yet

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• cites [56] Yang, 2010, Cytotoxic, apoptotic and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Amomum tsao-ko, Bioresour. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Retama raetam flower oils had apparent good DPPH antioxidant activity with IC50 fortyfold superior to BHT; the apparent activity could be attributed to high percentage of monoterpenes.

“In spite of the fact some authors consider that the flower oils of Retama raetam (Forssk.) Webb cultivated in Tunisia presented good antioxidant activity, as measured through the DPPH method, the sole method used by the authors, whereby the IC50 value was fortyfold superior to that of the reference BHT, nevertheless the apparent relative good activity reported by the authors could be attributed to”

• cites [72] Edziri, 2010, Chemical composition and antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activities of the flower oil of Retama raetam (Forssk.) Webb from Tunisia, Nat. Prod. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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Artemisia herba-alba essential oil had weak activity both against lipid oxidation and as a free radical scavenger.

“The essential oils of Artemisia herba-alba already reported above as possessing little ability for inhibiting lipid peroxidation [45], when evaluated in terms of free radical scavenging, the oils continued to have weak activity. In this case and in contrast to other works [44,51], the essential oil of Artemisia herba-alba was not effective either against lipid oxidation nor as a free radical scav”

• cites [45] Mighri, 2010, Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Artemisia herba-alba essential oil cultivated in Tunisian arid zone, C.R. Chim. sourceNot checked yet

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El-Ghorab et al. reported almost similar trends in DPPH and FRAP for Zingiber officinale and Cuminum cyminum oils; Cuminum cyminum presented the best activity.

“By comparing the antioxidant activity measured by DPPH radical scavenging and ferric reducing power (FRAP) of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Cuminum cyminum L. oils, El-Ghorab et al. (2010) [79] reported almost similar trends in both methods. Cuminum cyminum, mainly constituted by cuminal, γ-terpinene, pinocarveol,, carotol, α-pinene, sabinene, β-terpineol and linalool, presented the best activity”

• cites [79] Nauman, 2010, A comparative study on chemical composition and antioxidant activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum), J. Agr. Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Of 28 Portuguese Thymus oils, only Thymus zygis ssp. sylvestris and Thymus capitellatus had superoxide anion scavenging activity >50%; results indicate phenolic compounds are not the only ones able to scavenge superoxide anion.

“From the 28 essential oils evaluated, only Thymus zygis ssp. sylvestris and Thymus capitellatus collected in diferent places of Portugal had superoxide anion scavenging activity >50%.”

• Also stated in: § 3.2. Free radical scavenging ability · hedged

  “Such results seem to indicate that the phenolic compounds are not the only ones able to scavenge superoxide anion, as already reported for hydroxyl radical scavenging [53].”

• cites [53] Dandlen, 2010, Antioxidant activity of six Portuguese thyme species essential oils, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Eugenia caryophyllus showed the highest ferric reducing capacity in terms of Trolox concentrations, as in DPPH, in contrast to TBARS, in which Thymus vulgaris was more effective.

“Eugenia caryophyllus (clove) showed the highest ferric reducing capacity in terms of Trolox® concentrations, such as in the DPPH method, in contrast to the TBARS method, in which Thymus vulgaris showed to be more effective [52].”

• cites [52] Navajas, 2010, Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants widely used in a Mediterranean diet, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Pistacia atlantica leaf oils from diverse origins of Algeria showed weak DPPH scavenging compared to BHT and BHA, but higher FRAP antioxidant capacity relative to ascorbic acid.

“The antioxidant activity of Pistacia atlantica Desf. leaf oils from diverse origins of Algeria showed weak ability for scavenging DPPH free radicals, at least when compared to those of references (BHT and BHA). In contrast, the same oils had a higher antioxidant capacity relative to the antioxidant of reference ascobic acid when measured through the FRAP assay [78].”

• cites [78] Gourine, 2010, Antioxidant activities and chemical composition of essential oil of Pistacia atlantica from Algeria, Ind. Crop Prod. sourceNot checked yet

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Aniba panurensis, Aniba rosaeodora and Licaria martiniana oils had IC50 values generally >1,000 μg/mL, substantially superior to quercetin; low activity was attributed to absence or very low concentrations of β-caryophyllene and phenolic compounds.

“The IC50 values were generally >1,000 μg/mL, substantially superior to that of quercetin, the reference used by the authors. Such low activity was attributed to the absence or to the very low concentrations of some compounds responsible for antioxidant activity – β-caryophyllene along with phenolic compounds.”

• cites [64] Yamaguchi, 2010, Composição química de óleos essenciais de espécies de Aniba e Licaria e suas actividades antioxidante e antiagregante plaquetária, Quim. Nova sourceNot checked yet

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Portuguese Thymus camphoratus, Thymus caespititius and Thymus capitellatus oils were significantly more effective in scavenging hydroxyl radicals than the remaining samples; oils with thymol or carvacrol predominating did not present significant activities, indicating phenolic compounds are not determinant for hydroxyl radical scavenging.

“Among Portuguese Thymus species collected in different places of this country, Thymus camphoratus Hoffmanns. & Link, Thymus caespititius Brot., and Thymus capitellatus Hoffmanns. & Link oils from different origins were significantly more effective in scavenging hydroxyl radicals than the remaining samples.”

• Also stated in: § 3.2. Free radical scavenging ability · hedged

  “The oils in which thymol or carvacrol predominated did not present significant activities, which according to the authors [53] indicated that these phenolic compounds are not determinant in the ability for scavenging hydroxyl radicals.”

• cites [53] Dandlen, 2010, Antioxidant activity of six Portuguese thyme species essential oils, Flavour Fragr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Lindera pulcherrima, Dodecadenia grandiflora and Dodecadenia gamblei had the best inhibition of lipid peroxidation by TBARS and β-carotene bleaching, but only Dodecadenia grandiflora was a powerful DPPH radical scavenger.

“On the other hand Lindera pulcherrima, Dodecadenia grandiflora and Dodecadenia gamblei presented the best inhibition of lipid peroxidation determined through the TBARS method as well as in the β-carotene bleaching test, but in the DPPH method, only Dodecadenia grandiflora was a powerful DPPH radical scavenger [44].”

• cites [44] Joshi, 2010, Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the leaf essential oils of Himalayan Lauraceae species, J. Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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In FRAP, reference eugenol had weak ability, whereas in DPPH it had considerable activity; the difference is explained by different polarity, with water-like solvents decreasing hydrogen atom-donating capability compared with ethyl alcohol used in DPPH.

“Nevertheless in this assay the reference eugenol had weak ability, whereas in the DPPH method it possessed considerable activity. Such a difference could be explained by the different polarity for FRAP method compared with DPPH method. “Water-like” solvents induce a dramatic decrease in the hydrogen atom-donating capability in comparison with ethyl alcohol used in DPPH method [80].”

• cites [80] Politeo, 2010, Comparison of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of glycosidically bound and free volatiles from clove (Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb.), J. Food Biochem. sourceNot checked yet

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Ridolfia segetum root oil had good activity with IC50 close to BHT; antiradical activity could be attributed to high amounts of dillapiole and myristicin.

“A good activity was found by Saei-Dehkordi et al. (2010) [74] for the root oil of Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris from Tunisia, because the IC50 values were close to that of BHT. Such antiradical activity could be attributed to the high amounts of two phenyl-propanoids, dillapiole and myristicin [60].”

• cites [74] Tajik, 2010, Chemical composition of essential oils in Zataria multiflora Boiss. from different parts of Iran and their radical scavenging and antimicrobial activity, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [60] Grosso, 2010, Composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris volatiles: comparison between supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation, J. Sep. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Rosa canina had ABTS scavenging capacity; harvesting place was determinant, related to high percentages of vitispirane.

“Rosa canina L. also possessed capacity for scavenging ABTS, nevertheless the harvesting place was determinant in such activity, which seemed to be related to the presence of high percentages of vitispirane [76].”

• cites [76] Ghazghazi, 2010, Phenols, essential oils, and carotenoids of Rosa canina from Tunisia and their antioxidant activities, Afr. J. Biotechnol.Not checked yet

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The carrageenan-induced mouse paw oedema method allows screening anti-inflammatory activity of samples but gives very little information about its mechanism.

“If this method allows screening the anti-inflammatory of samples, very little information is given about its mechanism.”

May combine two claims.

Ageratum conyzoides essential oil had better hydroxyl radical scavenging in the benzoic acid method than in the deoxyribose method; explained by relative reactivity of hydroxyl radical towards the substrates.

“In the benzoic acid hydroxylation method, the essential oil presented better activity than in the deoxyribose method. The authors explained such results to the relative reactivity of hydroxyl radical towards the substrates deoxyribose and benzoic acid.”

• cites [51] Patil, 2010, Antiaflatoxigenic and antioxidant activity of an essential oil from Ageratum conyzoides L, J. Sci. Food Agr. sourceNot checked yet

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Ageratum scoparia young and mature leaf oils displayed high hydroxyl radical scavenging; main constituents β-myrcene and p-cymene had much less activity than oils; mature leaf oils were more effective antioxidants than young leaf oils by DPPH.

“The oils from young and mature leaves of Ageratum scoparia Waldst. & Kit. displayed a high degree of hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. However, the scavenging activity of principle constituents, β-myrcene and p-cymene, was very less compared to that of oils. The same authors [83] also evaluated the antioxidant activity of the samples by the DPPH method and also reported less activity of the”

• cites [83] Singh, 2010, In vitro screening of essential oil from young and mature leaves of Artemisia scoparia compared to its major constituents for free radical scavenging activity, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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Of 248 essential oils evaluated by DPPH and DPPH/TLC, only 17 species possessed effective antioxidant activity, mainly belonging to Lamiaceae; active compounds included phenols, non-phenols, oxygenated or non-oxygenated compounds.

“Saleh et al. (2010) [65] have conducted a comparative evaluation of the antioxidant properties of 248 essential oils by the spectrophotometer method of DPPH along with DPPH/TLC. Only 17 species possessed effective antioxidant activity, mainly belonging to the Lamiaceae family. The active compounds detected by DPPH/TLC method included phenols, non-phenols, oxygenated or non-oxygenated compounds.”

• cites [65] Saleh, 2010, Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of essential oils, Ethn. Dis.Not checked yet

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Athamanta turbith ssp. hungarica and ssp. haynaldii oils had similar hydroxyl radical scavenging; by DPPH, ssp. hungarica was most effective but less than quercetin and ascorbic acid.

“The capacity for scavenging hydroxyl radicals was evaluated and the authors found that both oils had similar ability. When the activity was evaluated by the DPPH method, the authors reported that Athamanta turbith ssp. hungarica was the most effective, albeit with less ability than the references used (quercetin and ascorbic acid) [84].”

• cites [84] Samojlik, 2010, Effects of Athamanta turbith fruit essential oils on CCl4-induced hepatic failure in mice and their antioxidant properties, Phytother. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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Ageratum conyzoides methanolic extracts had low capacity for preventing lipid oxidation but were more effective than the essential oil in the DPPH assay.

“Ageratum conyzoides methanolic extracts that had low capacity for preventing lipid oxidation, in the DPPH assay were revealed to be more effective than the essential oil [51].”

• cites [51] Patil, 2010, Antiaflatoxigenic and antioxidant activity of an essential oil from Ageratum conyzoides L, J. Sci. Food Agr. sourceNot checked yet

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COX-2 expression is regulated by a negative feedback loop mediated through PPARγ, especially in macrophages.

“On the other hand, Inoue et al. (2000) [136] consider that COX-2 expression is regulated by a negative feedback loop, mediated through PPARγ, especially in macrophages, indicating that PPARγ participates in cell type-specific control of COX-2 expression.”

• cites [136] Inoue, 2000, Feedback control of cyclooxygenase-2 expression through PPARγ, J. Biol. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The major source of TNF-α is cells of monocyte/macrophage lineage, although T lymphocytes, neutrophils, and mast cells also produce it.

“The major source of TNF-α is the cells of monocyte/macrophage lineage although T lymphocytes, neutrophils and mast cells also produce this pro-inflammatory cytokine.”

• cites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

LPS is an endotoxin localised on Gram-negative bacterial cell walls that activates macrophages and stimulates production of inflammatory cytokines.

“The production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines may be induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that is an endotoxin localised on Gram negative bacteria cell walls capable to activate macrophages, stimulating the production of inflammatory cytokines [104].”

• cites [104] Raetz, 2002, Lipopolysaccharide endotoxins, Annu. Rev. Biochem. sourceNot checked yet

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PPARs are ligand-activated transcription factors comprising PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ, which play roles in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, cell proliferation and differentiation, and inflammation.

“Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPARs) are ligand-activated transcription factors that belong to the superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors, which also includes receptors for vitamin D, vitamin A, thyroid hormone, bile acids, and steroid hormones. The PPAR subfamily comprises three isotypes, PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ, which play various roles in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism,”

• cites [132] Hotta, 2010, Carvacrol, a component of thyme oil, activates PPARα and γ and suppresses COX-2 expressio, J. Lipid Res. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [133] Mangelsdorf, 1995, The nuclear receptor superfamily: the second decade, Cell sourceNot checked yet

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IL-1β is produced by a variety of cell types including monocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells.

“IL-1β is produced by a variety of cells types, including monocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts and endothelial cells [103].”

• cites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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1,8-Cineole inhibits leukotrienes (LTB4) and prostaglandins (PGE2), both pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism.

“1,8-Cineole, a terpene oxide, present in many essential oils was shown to inhibit leukotrienes (LTB4) and prostaglandins (PGE2), both pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism [102].”

• cites [102] Juergens, 1998, Antiinflammatory effects of eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) in bronchial asthma: inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism in human blood monocytes ex vivo, Eur. J. Med. Res.Not checked yet

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Thyme essential oil only at high concentrations (5,000 mg/L) significantly inhibits total mRNA IL-1β expression in mouse colon with TNBS-induced colitis, without significantly inhibiting IL-6 expression.

“Thyme essential oil, mainly constituted by p-cymene and thymol, only at high concentrations (5,000 mg/L) significantly inhibited total mRNA IL-1β expression in the mouse colon in which colitis was induced by TNBS, not inhibiting significantly IL-6 expression [125].”

• cites [125] Koppel, 2008, Anti-inflammatory effects of thyme essential oil in mice, Acta Vet. Brno sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There are three NOS isoforms: constitutive, endothelial, and cytokine-inducible; inflammatory mediators such as IL-1, TNF-α, or LPS stimulate iNOS expression in rodent macrophages in vitro, and NO production and/or iNOS expression are induced in many mammalian cells.

“There are three isoforms of NOS: constitutive (cNOS), endothelial (eNOS) and the other is cytokine-inducible NOS (iNOS). Inflammatory mediators such as IL-1, TNF-α or LPS stimulate iNOS expression in rodent macrophages in vitro. NO production and/or iNOS expression are also induced by inflammatory mediators in a wide variety of mammalian cells, producing large amounts of NO for prolonged time”

• cites [25] Miyasaka, 1997, Nitric oxide and inflammatory arthritides (minireview), Life Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Cordia verbenacea essential oil significantly reduces TNF-α levels but not IL-1β production in subcutaneous tissue of rat paw injected with carrageenan.

“Cordia verbenacea D. C. essential oil significantly reduced TNF-α levels but not IL-1β production in the subcutaneous tissue of the rat paw injected with carrageenan [112].”

• cites [112] Passos, 2007, Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties of the essential oil and active compounds from Cordia verbenacea, J. Ethnopharmacol. sourceNot checked yet

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Some South African Salvia essential oils inhibit 5-lipoxygenase, and this activity is attributed to 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, and β-caryophyllene.

“More examples of 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors included some Salvia essential oils from South Africa. The authors attributed such activities to the presence of 1,8-cineole, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene in the essential oils [98].”

• cites [98] Kamatou, 2006, Chemical composition, leaf trichome types and biological activities of the essential oils of four related Salvia species indigenous to Southern Africa, J. Essent. Oil Res. sourceNot checked yet

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Cinnamaldehyde inhibits secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α in LPS- or LTA-stimulated murine J774A.1 macrophages and suppresses these cytokines from LPS-stimulated human blood monocyte-derived primary macrophages and human THP-1 monocytes.

“Cinnamaldehyde, isolated from an essential oil produced from the leaves of Cinnamomum osmophloeum, was reported to inhibit the secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α within LPS or lipoteichoic acid (LTA) stimulated murine J774A.1 macrophages. Cinnamaldehyde also suppressed the production of these cytokines from LPS stimulated human blood monocytes derived primary macrophages and human THP-1 monocytes [111].”

• cites [111] Chao, 2008, Cinnamaldehyde inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion from monocytes/macrophages through suppression of intracellular signalling, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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Rosmarinus officinalis oil reduces pro-inflammatory IL-6 production in mouse colon with TNBS-induced colitis but does not suppress IL-1β.

“Rosmarinus officinalis L. oil, mainly constituted by 1,8-cineole along with α-pinene, camphor and p-cymene was only able to reduce the pro-inflammatory IL-6 production in the mouse colon in which colitis was induced by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS), not suppressing IL-1β [110].”

• cites [110] Fabian, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil in mice, Acta Vet. Brno. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Among 21 spices tested for hepatoprotective activity in rats with LPS/D-galactosamine liver damage, only myristicin presented potent hepatoprotective activity by suppressing LPS/D-GalN-induced enhancement of serum TNF-α concentrations and hepatic DNA fragmentation in mice.

“Among the 21 spices [allspice (Pimenta officinalis Lindl.), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.), caraway (Carum carvi L.), gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis), cumin (Cuminum cyninum L.), clove [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry], laurel (Laurus nobilis L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.), cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylonicum Blume), sage (”

• cites [122] Morita, 2003, Hepatoprotective effect of myristicin from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) on lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine-induced liver injury, J. Agr. Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Prostaglandin E2 amplifies pain and enhances vascular permeability, whereas leukotrienes contract vascular smooth muscle, enhance vascular permeability, and mediate proinflammatory and allergic responses.

“The prostaglandins, especially prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) amplify the pain mechanism and enhance vascular permeability whereas the leukotrienes contract the smooth muscles of blood vessels, enhance vascular permeability and mediate proinflammatory and allergic responses [97].”

• cites [97] Houghton, 2003, The activity against leukocyte eicosanoid generation of essential oil and polar fractions of Adesmia boronioides Hook.f, Phytother. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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Tea tree oil suppresses IL-2 and stimulates secretion of anti-inflammatory IL-4 and IL-10 cytokines in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated by phytohemagglutinin.

“Six years later, Caldefie et al. (2006) [107] also reported the capacity of the essential oil of that species for suppressing IL-2 pro-inflammatory cytokine and stimulating the secretion of the anti-inflammatory IL-4 and IL-10 cytokines in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell (monocytes and lymphocytes) stimulated by the lectin phytohemagglutinin (PHA) from Phaseolus vulgaris L..”

• cites [107] Fusillier, 2006, Potential anti-inflammatory effects of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil on human peripheral blood leukocytes, Phytother. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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Lemongrass, geranium, and spearmint essential oils and their main components suppress TNF-α-induced neutrophil adherence responses without affecting TNF-α, by affecting neutrophil function.

“Whether some essential oils are able to inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, some of them, particularly lemongrass, geranium and spearmint and their main components (citral, geraniol, citronellol, and carvone), can also suppress TNF-α-induced neutrophil adherence responses [120]. According to these authors, those essential oils or their major components do not affect”

• cites [120] Abe, 2003, Suppression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced neutrophil adherence response by essential oils, Mediat. Inflamm. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

iNOS catalyses production of large amounts of NO from L-arginine and molecular oxygen and is mainly triggered and regulated by signalling pathways including NF-κB and MAPKs.

“iNOS catalises the production of large amount of NO from L-arginine and molecular oxygen, is mainly triggered and regulated by a series of signalling pathways including nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transcription factor and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) [116].”

• cites [116] Yoon, 2010, Artemisia fukudo essential oil attenuates LPS-induced inflammation by suppressing NF-kB and MAPK activation in RAW264.7 macrophages, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

LPS activates three subclasses of MAPKs in macrophages and other cells: ERK, JNK, and p38; some compounds suppress proinflammatory cytokines and NF-κB and inhibit COX-2 and iNOS expression by inhibiting some of these MAPKs.

“In macrophages and other types of cells, LPS activates three subclasses of MAPKs: extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38. Studies have revealed that some compounds are able to suppress proinflammatory cytokines and NF-κB, to inhibit the COX-2 and iNOS expression inhibiting some of these MAPKS [129,130,131].”

• cites [129] Wadsworth, 2001, Effects of Ginkgo biloba extracts and quercetin on lipopolysaccharide-induced release of nitric oxide, Chem. Biol. Interact. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [130] Winstein, 1992, Bacterial lipopolysaccacharide induces tyrosine phosphorilation and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases in macrophages, J. Biol. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [131] Yanagita, 2005, Anthocyanidins inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 expression in LPS-evoked macrophages: structure-activity relationship and molecular mechanisms involved, Biochem. Pharmacol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α are important pro-inflammatory cytokines with a relevant role in inflammatory disorders.

“Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) are two important pro-inflammatory cytokines with a relevant role in the inflammatory disorders.”

• cites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

NF-κB is maintained latent in the cytoplasm complexed to IκB; upon activation, IκB-α is phosphorylated by IκB kinases, leading to proteasome-dependent degradation of IκB and rapid translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus, where p65:p50 binding to DNA results in transcription of proinflammatory genes such as cytokines and iNOS/COX-2.

“NF-κB is maintained as a latent form in the cytoplasm of cells where it is complexed to IκB inhibitor protein. Seven members of the IκB family of proteins have been identified and includes IκB-α. Upon activation of NF-κB, IκB-α is phosphorylated by IκB kinases (IKK) leading to proteasome-dependent degradation of IκB, which allows a rapid translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus where it binds to”

• cites [127] Yoshimura, 2006, Signal transduction of inflammatory cytokines and tumor development, Cancer Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [128] Poynter, 2000, Recent advances towards understanding redox mechanisms in the activation of nuclear factor κB, Free Radic. Biol. Med. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Only Teucrium brevifolia and Teucrium montbretii ssp. heliotropiifolium essential oils from a group of four studied effectively inhibited LPS-induced NO production in RAW 264.7 macrophages; spathulenol and δ-cadinene predominated in T. brevifolia, while carvacrol and caryophyllene oxide dominated in T. montbretii.

“Only the essential oils of Teucrium brevifolia Schreber and Teucrium montbretii Benth. ssp. heliotropiifolium (Barbey) Davis from a group of four studied effectively inhibited LPS-induced NO production in macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. Spathulenol and δ-cadinene predominated in Teucrium brevifolia whereas carvacrol and caryophyllene oxide dominated in Teucrium montbretii.”

• cites [137] Menichini, 2009, Phytochemical composition, anti-inflammatory and antitumour activities of four Teucrium essential oils from Greece, Food Chem.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The anti-inflammatory activities of PPARs are partially effectuated by inhibition of NF-κB; PPARα impairs binding of NF-κB to DNA and increases expression of IκB.

“The anti-inflammatory activities of PPARs are partially effectuated by inhibition of NF-κB. PPARs are able to attenuate NF-κB function either by interfering with the transcription activating capacity of the NF-κB complex or by regulating genes that suppress the activation of NF-κB. By physical interaction with components of the NF-κB complex, PPARα impairs binding of NF-κB to the DNA and”

• cites [134] Stienstra, R. (2007). The role of PPARs in inflammation and obesity. [PhD thesis, Wageningen University]. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [135] Nystrom, 2005, Endothelial inflammation in insulin resistance, Lancet. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Inhibition of COX-2 activity or expression by some anti-inflammatory agents is due to interference with signalling mechanisms regulating the COX-2 gene; NF-κB, C/EBP, AP-1, and CREB have been identified as regulators of COX-2 transcription.

“The inhibition of activity or expression of COX-2 by some anti-inflammatory is due to the interference with the signalling mechanisms that regulate the COX-2 gene. In this gene, four transcription factors including NF-κB, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP), activator protein 1 (AP-1) and CRE-binding protein (CREB) have been identified as regulators of COX-2 transcription [22,126].”

• cites [22] Gomes, 2008, Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity mediated by flavonoids, Curr. Med. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [126] Inoue, 1995, Transcriptional regulation of human prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase-2 gene by lipopolysaccharide and phorbol ester in vascular endotelial cells, J. Biol. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Torreya nucifera oil is a COX-2 selective inhibitor with significant inhibitory effects on PGE2 production.

“The oils Torreya nucifera Siebold et Zucc. oil, mainly constituted by limonene, δ-3-carene and α-pinene, was a COX-2 selective inhibitor having significant inhibitory effects on PGE2 production [101].”

• cites [101] Kim, 2009, Torreya nucifera essential oil inhibits skin pathogen growth and lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory effects, Int. J. Pharmacol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gram-positive bacteria may also contribute to cytokine stimulation; lipoteichoic acid causes cytokine induction in mononuclear phagocytes and synergises with peptidoglycan to result in higher cytokine levels.

“However, Gram positive bacteria may also contribute to the stimulation in the production of cytokines. Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) represents a class of amphiphilic molecules anchored to the outer face of the cytoplasmic membrane in Gram positive bacteria that causes cytokine induction in mononuclear phagocytes and a synergism with peptidoglycan (PG) has been described resulting in higher cytokine lev”

• cites [105] Morath, 2003, Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus activated immune cells via Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), and CD14, whereas TLR-4 and MD-2 are not involved, J. Biol. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Cinnamomum insularimontanum fruit essential oils and citral inhibit NO production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells; citral inhibits LPS-induced iNOS protein expression but not COX-2.

“The fruit essential oils of Cinnamomum insularimontanum Hayata and citral were revealed to possess significant inhibitory effects on NO production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Citral exhibited an inhibitory activity in LPS-induced iNOS protein expression, not found for COX-2.”

• cites [121] Lin, 2008, Anti-inflammation activity of fruit essential oil from Cinnamomum insularimontanum Hayata, Bioresource Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Essential oils may act as antioxidants by preventing lipid peroxidation, scavenging free radicals, or, in very few cases, chelating metal ions.

“This work reports the antioxidant activities of essential oils which may act by preventing lipid peroxidation, scavenging free radicals or, and in very few cases, chelating metal ions.”

May combine two claims.

Anethole inhibits degradation of IκBα by blocking its phosphorylation in TNF-stimulated ML1-a cells, does not induce MAP kinase phosphorylation, and blocks TNF-induced JNK and AP-1.

“The same authors also reported that anethole inhibited the degradation of IκBα, blocking its phosphorylation in TNF-stimulated ML1-a cells. In the same cells and with TNF stimulation, anethole did not induce the phosphorylation of MAP kinase. Besides NF-κB and MAP kinase, anethole also blocked TNF-induced JNK and AP-1.”

• cites [148] Chainy, 2000, Anethole blocks both early and late cellular responses transduced by tumor necrosis factor: effect on NF-kB, AP-1 JNK, MAPKK and apopotosis, Oncogene sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of essential oils are well documented, but their uses can be hampered due to the chemical variability of the oils.

“The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the essential oils are well documented; nevertheless their uses can be hampered due to the chemical variability of the oils.”

May combine two claims.

Cabrera and Prieto (2010) first showed application of artificial neural networks to predict antioxidant activity of essential oils in the DPPH and linoleic acid models, and the results confirmed that this computational technique was reliable for predicting antioxidant activity from some components.

“Recently, Cabrera and Prieto (2010) [153] were able, for the first time, to show the application of artificial neural networks (ANN) on the prediction of the antioxidant activity of essential oils in two experimental in vitro models: in the DPPH and linoleic acid models. They used about 30 components from 80 that are described as possessing antioxidant activity and the results confirmed that this”

• cites [153] Cabrera, 2010, Application of artificial neural networks to the prediction of the antioxidant activity of essential oils in two experimental in vitro models, Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Citral prevents degradation of IκBα in LPS-induced inflammation and reduces p50 NF-κB levels in nuclear fractions.

“The authors concluded that citral could prevent the degradation of IκBα in LPS-induced inflammation and reduce the p50 NF-κB levels in nuclear fractions [121].”

• cites [121] Lin, 2008, Anti-inflammation activity of fruit essential oil from Cinnamomum insularimontanum Hayata, Bioresource Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Juniperus oxycedrus essential oil inhibits IL-1-induced NO production in human chondrocytic cell line C-28/12; the same oil and an α-pinene-rich fraction reduce IL-1-induced IκBα degradation and phosphorylation, NF-κB-DNA binding activity, and NO production.

“The essential oil from the leaves of Juniperus oxycedrus L. of the Iberian flora, mainly constituted by α-pinene, showed a great inhibition of IL-1-induced NO production in the human chondrocytic cell line C-28/12. The same oil and a α-pinene-rich fraction reduced markedly IL-1-induced IκBα degradation and phosphorylation, NF-κB-DNA binding activity and NO production [152].”

• cites [152] Neves, 2010, Screening of five essential oils for identification of potential inhibitors of IL-1-induced NF-κB activation and NO production in human chondrocytes: characterization of the inhibitory activity of α-pinene, Planta Med. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Cleistocalyx operculatus oil suppresses mRNA expression of TNF-a and IL-1b and blocks LPS-induced transcriptional activation of NF-κB and nuclear translocation of p65 subunit in RAW 264.7 cells.

“Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry oil not only significantly inhibited LPS-induced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-1b, in RAW 264.7 cells, as reported above, but also suppressed the mRNA expression of TNF-a and IL-1b as well as blocked LPS-induced transcriptional activation of NF-κB and nuclear translocation of p65 subunit [103].”

• cites [103] Dung, 2009, Anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil isolated from the buds of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr and Perry, Food Chem. Toxicol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Several factors including harvesting time of the aromatic plant, climatic and agronomic conditions, vegetative development of the plant, plant part used, and type of extraction can be responsible for fluctuations in the chemical compositions of essential oils.

“Several factors including harvesting time of the aromatic plant, climatic and agronomic conditions, vegetative development of the plant, the plant part used, type of extraction used can be considered as responsible for fluctuations in their chemical compositions.”

May combine two claims.

α-Humulene and trans-caryophyllene inhibit LPS-induced NF-kB activation and neutrophil migration in the rat paw but are unable to inhibit LPS-induced MAP kinase activation.

“α-Humulene and trans-caryophyllene, the main constituents of Cordia verbenacea inhibited the LPS-induced NF-kB activation and neutrophil migration in the rat paw, however unable to inhibit LPS-induced MAP kinase activation [113].”

• cites [113] Medeiros, 2007, Effect of two active compounds obtained from the essential oil of Cordia verbenacea on the acute inflammatory responses elicited by LPS in the rat paw, Brit. J. Pharmacol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

1,8-Cineole inhibits Egr-1 synthesis and nuclear localization induced by LPS in THP-1 cells but does not affect LPS-induced NF-κB expression in nuclei.

“Zhou et al. (2007) [149] showed that 1,8-cineole inhibited the Egr-1 synthesis and nuclear localization induced by LPS in THP-1 cells but did not affect the LPS-induced NF-κB expression in nuclei.”

• cites [149] Zhou, 2007, Inhibitory effect of 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) on Erg-1 expression in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated THP-1 cells, Acta Pharmacol. Sin. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Origanum ehrenbergii oil induces a significant inhibitory effect on LPS-induced NO production in RAW 264.7 cells, whereas Origanum syriacum oil does not show such ability.

“Incubation of RAW 264.7 cells with Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss. oil, in which thymol and p-cymene predominated, induced a significant inhibitory effect on the LPS-induced NO production. Origanum syriacum L. predominatly composed by carvacrol and thymol did not show such ability [139].”

• cites [139] Loizzo, 2009, Chemical analysis, antioxidant, antiiflammatory and anticholinesterase activities of Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss. and Origanum syriacum L. essential oils, Food Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Carvacrol suppresses LPS-induced COX-2 mRNA and protein expression in human U937 cells, suggesting that carvacrol regulates COX-2 expression through its agonistic effect on PPARγ.

“In human macrophage-like U937 cells, carvacrol suppressed LPS-induced COX-2 mRNA and protein expression, suggesting that carvacrol regulates COX-2 expression through its agonistic effect on PPARγ [132].”