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Cited by 108Medicinal Plants and NeuroprotectionAlzheimer's disease research and treatmentsPhytochemicals and Medicinal Plants

Indian Medicinal Herbs and Formulations for Alzheimer’s Disease, from Traditional Knowledge to Scientific Assessment

Open access
Mehla, Jogender, Gupta, Pooja, Pahuja, Monika, Diwan, Deepti, Diksha, Diksha·2020·Brain Sciences
DOI 10.3390/brainsci10120964PMC PMC7764187
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Abstract

Cognitive impairment, associated with ageing, stress, hypertension and various neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson’s disease and epilepsy, is a major health issue. The present review focuses on Alzheimer’s disease (AD), since it is the most important cause of cognitive impairment. It is characterized by progressive memory loss, language deficits, depression, agitation, mood disturbances and psychosis. Although the hallmarks of AD are cholinergic dysfunction, β-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangle formation, it is also associated with derangement of other neurotransmitters, elevated levels of advanced glycation end products, oxidative damage, neuroinflammation, genetic and environmental factors. On one hand, this complex etiopathology makes a response to commonly used drugs such as donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine and memantine less predictable and often unsatisfactory. On the other hand, it supports the use of herbal medicines due to their nonspecific antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and specific cholinesterase inhibitory activity. The popularity of herbal medicines is also increasing due to their perceived effectiveness, safety and affordability. In the present article, the experimental and clinical evidence have been reviewed for various Indian herbal medicines such as Centella asiatica, Bacopa monnieri, Curcuma longa, Clitoria ternatea, Withania somnifera, Celastrus paniculatus, Evolvulus alsinoides, Desmodium gangeticum, Eclipta alba, Moringa oleifera and Convolvulus pluricaulis, which have shown potential in cognitive impairment. Some commonly available herbal formulations for memory impairment in India have also been reviewed.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This narrative review summarizes experimental and clinical evidence for Indian medicinal herbs and polyherbal formulations in Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive impairment. It concludes that many herbs show preclinical promise via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cholinergic, and anti-amyloid mechanisms, but clinical validation, standardization, and safety data remain limited for most.

Key findings

  • The review covers 11 Indian herbs—*Centella asiatica*, *Bacopa monnieri*, *Curcuma longa*, *Clitoria ternatea*, *Withania somnifera*, *Celastrus paniculatus*, *Evolvulus alsinoides*, *Desmodium gangeticum*, *Eclipta alba*, *Moringa oleifera*, and *Convolvulus pluricaulis*—plus formulations including Mentat, Trasina, Memorin, Bramhi Ghrita, and Abana. Herbal medicines are proposed to act through nonspecific antioxidant/anti-inflammatory effects and specific actions on AChE, β-amyloid fibril formation, and tau aggregation.
  • Clinical evidence cited includes *Centella asiatica* extract 250–750 mg once daily for 2 months in healthy volunteers, where the high dose enhanced working memory and improved self-rated mood; *Bacopa monnieri* 300 mg daily for 12 weeks improved verbal learning, memory consolidation, and speed of early information processing in healthy volunteers (n = 46), while 125 mg twice daily for 12 weeks improved mental control, logical memory, and paired associate learning in subjects above 55 years with memory impairment; and *Withania somnifera* root extract 300 mg twice daily for 8 weeks improved immediate and general memory, executive function, attention, and information processing speed in adults with mild cognitive impairment.
  • Preclinical findings include curcumin lowering soluble Aβ, insoluble amyloid, and plaque burden by nearly 40% in a transgenic mouse study, inhibiting Aβ aggregation/disaggregation at IC50 = 0.81–1 μM, and showing no toxicity up to 8000 mg/day for 3 months in a phase I trial with 25 healthy subjects. *Centella asiatica* at 2.5 mg/kg for 8 months decreased amyloid beta 1–40 and 1–42 in the hippocampus of PSAPP mice, and 5.0 mg/kg reduced Congo red-stained fibrillar amyloid plaques.
  • Toxicity data reported include *Centella asiatica* extract up to 10 g/kg with no acute toxicity signs, no significant toxicity at 10–1000 mg/kg in subacute studies, and no significant toxicity up to 1200 mg/kg/day for six months in Wistar rats, but one study found 1000 mg/kg/day dried *C. asiatica* for 30 days caused hepatotoxicity in albino rats. *Bacopa* oral LD50 was 5 g/kg for aqueous extract and 17 g/kg for alcoholic extract in rats.

Methods

  • This is a narrative review. Database searches were conducted on PUBMED and GOOGLE SCHOLAR using keywords: dementia, herbal products/drugs/medicine, Alzheimer’s disease, and complementary and alternative medicines.
  • Inclusion criteria were preclinical studies (in-vitro and in-vivo), clinical studies, and herbal medicines identified with their regional or Hindi name. Exclusion criteria were herbal drugs of non-Indian origin, articles in languages other than English, and full text not available.
  • The review summarizes plant descriptions, chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, preclinical studies, clinical evidence, and toxicity for selected herbs, followed by sections on Indian herbal formulations, regulatory status, and issues/challenges with herbal drugs.

Limitations

  • The paper states that clinical evidence is limited or absent for several herbs: *C. asiatica* use for AD “remains to be evaluated”; curcumin lacks clinical data on efficacy in AD; *C. paniculatus* has not undergone clinical trials for safety and efficacy and animal toxicology data are lacking; *E. alsinoides* has not been studied systematically for clinical efficacy and toxicological effects; *D. gangeticum* has little clinical evidence and requires toxicity studies; *E. alba* needs clinical evaluation; *M. oleifera* mechanism, composition, and extract differences need to be established before clinical trials; and *C. pluricaulis* has not been evaluated clinically.
  • The paper also states broader challenges: quality control of herbal drugs, herb–drug interactions, adulteration, labeling, and pharmacovigilance. It calls standardization of plant extracts “an urgent need,” says phytoconstituents should be isolated, identified, and systematically tested, and recommends multicenter clinical trials.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic quality assessment, risk-of-bias appraisal, or meta-analysis; findings rely heavily on preclinical models and heterogeneous extracts, doses, and formulations, which limits direct comparability and clinical generalizability.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/brainsci10120964

Cites

242 of 242 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

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  • Findingnone given

    Despite detailed experimental studies, C. pluricaulis has not been evaluated clinically.

    “Despite detailed experimental studies, the herb has not been evaluated clinically.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The adverse effects of AChE inhibitors are often dose limiting and disabling.

    “These adverse effects are often dose limiting and disabling in nature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    The leaves of Centella asiatica have been used as a memory enhancer in the Ayurvedic system of medicine.

    “The leaves of mandukparni have been used as a memory enhancer in the Ayurvedic system of medicine [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Rao, 2006, Centella asiatica (L.) Leaf Extract Treatment during the Growth Spurt Period Enhances Hippocampal CA3 Neuronal Dendritic Arborization in Rats, Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. source

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  • Premisecitation

    Memantine reduces the rate of decline in behavioral and functional impairment in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease.

    “The rate of decline in behavioral and functional impairment in patients with moderate to severe AD is reduced by memantine [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Bullock, 2006, Efficacy and Safety of Memantine in Moderate-to-Severe Alzheimer Disease: The Evidence to Date, Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. source

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  • Premisecitation

    Antioxidants protect against amyloid-beta induced neuronal toxicity.

    “Studies have also reported that antioxidants protect against Aβ induced neuronal toxicity [16,17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16] Bruce, 1996, beta-Amyloid toxicity in organotypic hippocampal cultures: Protection by EUK-8, a synthetic catalytic free radical scavenger, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

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    • cites [17] Pappolla, 1997, Melatonin Prevents Death of Neuroblastoma Cells Exposed to the Alzheimer Amyloid Peptide, J. Neurosci. source

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  • May combine two claims. 71
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    Findingnone given

    C. paniculatus has not undergone clinical trials for safety and efficacy, and animal toxicology data is lacking to date.

    “C. paniculatus has not undergone clinical trials for safety and efficacy. Animal toxicology data is also lacking to date.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    E. alsinoides has not been studied systematically for clinical efficacy and toxicological effects.

    “E. alsionoides has not been studied systematically for clinical efficacy and toxicological effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    C. pluricaulis has not been studied for toxicity.

    “C. pluricaulis has not been studied for toxicity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Currently available therapies for Alzheimer's disease management are based on the cholinergic hypothesis.

    “Currently available therapies for AD management are based on this hypothesis [8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Anand, 2013, A review on cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer’s disease, Arch. Pharmacal Res. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The β-amyloid hypothesis is the most cogent hypothesis and provides the basis for development of new therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease treatment.

    “The β-amyloid hypothesis, most cogent hypothesis [9,10,11,12] provides the basis for development of new therapeutic strategies for AD treatment [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [9] Beyreuther, 1991, Amyloid precursor protein (APP) and beta A4 amyloid in the etiology of Alzheimer’s disease, precursor-product relationships in the derangement of neuronal function, Brain Pathol. source

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    • cites [10] Hardy, 1991, Amyloid deposition as the central event in the aetiology of Alzheimer’s disease, Trends Pharmacol Sci. source

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    • cites [11] Hardy, 1992, Alzheimer’s disease, the amyloid cascade hypothesis, Science source

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    • cites [12] Selkoe, 1991, The molecular pathology of Alzheimer’s disease, Neuron source

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    • cites [13] Selkoe, 2016, The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease at 25 years, EMBO Mol. Med. source

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    Premisecitation

    The histopathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease are neuritic plaque and neurofibrillary tangle formation in the brain.

    “The histopathological hallmarks of AD are neuritic plaque and neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) formation in the brain [14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Calabrese, 2008, Effects of a Standardized Bacopa monnieri Extract on Cognitive Performance, Anxiety, and Depression in the Elderly: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial, J. Altern. Complement. Med. source

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    Premisecitation

    Alzheimer's disease is responsible for more than two-thirds of all dementia cases.

    “This review is focused on the potential of herbal medicine in AD since it is responsible for more than two-thirds of all dementia cases [5,6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [5] Kumar, A., Sidhu, J., Goyal, A., Goyal, A., and Tsao, J.W. (2020, November 25). Alzheimer Disease, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499922/.

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    • cites [6] Nussbaum, 2003, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, N. Engl. J. Med. source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The cholinergic hypothesis describes acetylcholine deficiency as the causative factor of Alzheimer's disease.

    “Cholinergic hypothesis, which is the oldest theory, describes acetylcholine (ACh) deficiency as the causative factor [7].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Davies, 1976, Selective Loss of Central Cholinergic Neurons in Alzheimer’s Disease, Lancet source

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    Premisecitation

    Centella asiatica leaf extract has sedative, antidepressant and cholinomimetic activities.

    “The leaf extract also had sedative, antidepressant and cholinomimetic activities [57] suggesting its suitability for treatment of AD associated cognitive dysfunction and depression and anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Sakina, 1990, A psycho-neuropharmacological profile of Centella asiatica extract, Fitoterapia

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    Premisecitation

    Memantine showed promising anti-Alzheimer effects in preclinical experimental models, but in clinical studies it has not shown clear therapeutic efficacy in Alzheimer's disease.

    “Memantine showed promising anti-Alzheimer effects in preclinical experimental models, however, in clinical studies, it has not shown clear therapeutic efficacy in AD [33].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Folch, 2018, Memantine for the Treatment of Dementia: A Review on its Current and Future Applications, J. Alzheimers Dis. source

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    Premisecitation

    Other adverse effects of AChE inhibitors such as extrapyramidal symptoms, sleep disorder and cardiorespiratory adverse effects are associated with central cholinergic over-activity, whereas muscle cramps, weakness and urinary incontinence are associated with peripheral cholinergic over-activity.

    “Other adverse effects of AChE inhibitors such as extrapyramidal symptoms, sleep disorder and cardiorespiratory adverse effects, are associated with central cholinergic over-activity whereas muscle cramps, weakness and urinary incontinence, are associated with peripheral cholinergic over-activity [22].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] Inglis, 2002, The tolerability and safety of cholinesterase inhibitors in the treatment of dementia, Int. J. Clin. Pract. Suppl.

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    Premisecitation

    Centella asiatica aqueous leaf extract improves learning and memory in rats and modulates dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine and noradrenaline systems in the rat brain in-vivo.

    “C. asiatica aqueous leaf extract showed improvement in learning and memory in rats, and modulated dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and noradrenaline systems in the rat brain in-vivo [56].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Nalini, 1995, Effects of Celastrus paniculatus on passive avoidance performance and biogenic amine turnover in albino rats, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

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    Premisecitation

    Hormone replacement therapy is no longer recommended because it may increase the risk of adverse cardiovascular events and breast cancer.

    “Though it performed better than tacrine [31], it is no longer recommended, as it may increase the risk of adverse cardiovascular events and breast cancer [32].”
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    • cites [32] Cummings, 2004, Alzheimer’s disease, N. Engl. J. Med. source

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    Premisecitation

    Fifteen days treatment with Centella asiatica at 200 mg/kg from day 15 to 30 postpartum stimulated learning and memory in rats, which lasted for at least 6 months postpartum.

    “A study by Rao et al. [53] demonstrated that 15 days treatment with C. asiatica at a dose of 200 mg/kg from day 15 to 30 postpartum stimulated learning and memory in rats, which lasted for at least 6 months postpartum.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Rao, 2005, Centella asiatica treatment during postnatal period enhances learning and memory in mice, Physiol. Behav. source

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    Interpretationcitation

    Centella asiatica leaf extract is suitable for treatment of Alzheimer's disease associated cognitive dysfunction and depression and anxiety.

    “The leaf extract also had sedative, antidepressant and cholinomimetic activities [57] suggesting its suitability for treatment of AD associated cognitive dysfunction and depression and anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Sakina, 1990, A psycho-neuropharmacological profile of Centella asiatica extract, Fitoterapia

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    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal models of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive impairment predict clinical efficacy in human Alzheimer's disease patients.

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    Premisecitation

    Antioxidants (vitamins E and C) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs slow the progression of Alzheimer's disease.

    “Studies indicate that antioxidants (vitamins E and C) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs slow the progression of AD [25,26,27,28,29,30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [25] Bagi, 2003, Oxidative stress-induced dysregulation of arteriolar wall shear stress and blood pressure in hyperhomocysteinemia is prevented by chronic vitamin C treatment, Am. J. Physiol. Circ. Physiol. source

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    • cites [26] Cole, 2004, NSAID and antioxidant prevention of Alzheimer’s disease, lessons from in vitro and animal models, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. source

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    • cites [27] Engelhart, 2002, Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer disease, JAMA source

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    • cites [28] Esposito, 2002, A review of specific dietary antioxidants and the effects on biochemical mechanisms related to neurodegenerative processes, Neurobiol. Aging source

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    • cites [29] Moore, 2002, Neuroinflammation and anti-inflammatory therapy for Alzheimer’s disease, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. source

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    • cites [30] Pavlik, 2009, Vitamin E use is associated with improved survival in an Alzheimer’s disease cohort, Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. source

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    Premisecitation

    The combination of a Gingko biloba extract and donepezil is superior to donepezil monotherapy in terms of both safety and efficacy.

    “The combination was reported to be superior to donepezil monotherapy in terms of both safety and efficacy [49].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Yancheva, 2009, GINDON Study Group. Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761®, donepezil or both combined in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease with neuropsychiatric features: A randomised, double-blind, exploratory trial, Aging Ment. Health source

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    Premisecitation

    Centella asiatica treatment increased dendritic arborization of hippocampal CA3 neurons, which may be one reason for improvement in brain function.

    “They also observed an increase in dendritic arborization of hippocampal CA3 neurons, which may be one reason for improvement in brain function.”
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    • cites [53] Rao, 2005, Centella asiatica treatment during postnatal period enhances learning and memory in mice, Physiol. Behav. source

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    Premisecitation

    Bacopa alcoholic extract at doses of 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg improved escape latency in the Morris water maze test and prevented the reduction in cholinergic neuron density in the animal model of Alzheimer's disease induced by bilateral intracerebroventricular administration of AF64A.

    “The effect of alcoholic extract of Bacopa has been evaluated at the dose of 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg on cognitive functions and neurodegeneration in the animal model of AD induced by bilateral intracerebroventricular administration of AF64A. They found that Bacopa improved the escape latency in the Morris water maze test and prevented the reduction in cholinergic neuron density [47,82].”
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    • cites [47] Uabundit, 2010, Cognitive enhancement and neuroprotective effects of Bacopa monnieri in Alzheimer’s disease model, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

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    • cites [82] Pandey, S.P., Singh, H.K., and Prasad, S.B. (2015). Alterations in Hippocampal Oxidative Stress, Expression of AMPA Receptor GluR2 Subunit and Associated Spatial Memory Loss by Bacopa monnieri Extract (CDRI-08) in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 Mice. PLoS ONE, 10. source

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    Premisecitation

    Asiatic acid and its derivatives have shown a promising memory improving effect by improving acetylcholine synthesis.

    “Asiatic acid and its derivatives have shown a promising memory improving effect [65] by improving ACh synthesis [66,67].”
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    • cites [65] Lee, 2000, Asiatic acid derivatives protect cultured cortical neurons from glutamate-induced excitotoxicity, Res. Commun. Mol. Pathol. Pharmacol.

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    • cites [66] Kim, 2004, Asiatic acid derivatives enhance cognitive performance partly by improving acetylcholine synthesis, J. Pharm. Pharm. source

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    • cites [67] Orhan, 2012, Centella asiatica (L.) Urban: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Medicine with Neuroprotective Potential, Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. source

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    Premisecitation

    Centella asiatica leaf extract induced neurite elongation in human SH-SY-5Y cells and accelerated axonal regeneration in rats.

    “The leaf extract stimulated dendrites of neuronal cells in the rat brain [51] and induced neurite elongation in human SH-SY-5Y cells and accelerated axonal regenerate in rats [58].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [51] Rao, 2006, Centella asiatica (L.) Leaf Extract Treatment during the Growth Spurt Period Enhances Hippocampal CA3 Neuronal Dendritic Arborization in Rats, Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. source

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    • cites [58] Soumyanath, 2005, Centella asiatica accelerates nerve regeneration upon oral administration and contains multiple active fractions increasing neurite elongation in vitro, J. Pharm. Pharmacol. source

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    Premisecitation

    Bacosides have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

    “Besides, bacosides has been proven for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects [75] bacosides also attenuated the retrograde amnesia produced by immobilization induced stress, electroconvulsive shock and scopolamine [76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [75] Singh, 2010, Modulation of Hydrogen Peroxide and Acrolein-Induced Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Dysfunctions and Redox Regulated Pathways by the Bacopa Monniera Extract: Potential Implication in Alzheimer’s Disease, J. Alzheimer’s Dis. source

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    Premisecitation

    Bacopa monnieri has been used for the treatment of various ailments for thousands of years by practitioners of the traditional system of medicine of India.

    “Bacopa has been used for the treatment of various ailments for thousands of years by the practitioners of the traditional system of medicine of India [72].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72] Aguiar, 2013, Neuropharmacological Review of the Nootropic Herb Bacopa monnieri, Rejuvenation Res. source

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    Premisecitation

    In acute toxicity study, Centella asiatica extract up to 10 g/kg did not show any sign of toxicity; in subacute toxicity study, no toxicity was observed at doses of 10-1000 mg/kg; in chronic toxicity study, doses up to 1200 mg/kg/day for six months did not result in significant toxicity in Wistar rats.

    “In acute toxicity study, C. asiatica extract up to 10 g/kg did not shown any sign of toxicity whereas in the subacute toxicity study, no toxicity was observed when the extract was administered at the doses of 10–1000 mg/kg. In the chronic toxicity study, doses up to 1200 mg/kg/day for six months did not result in significant toxicity in Wistar rats [70].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Chivapat, 2004, Toxicity study of Centella asiatica (L) urban, J. Thai Trad Alt Med.

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    Premisecitation

    In children aged 6-8 years, Bacopa syrup (350 mg Bacopa powder) administered three times a day for three months resulted in significant improvement compared to placebo, but the study was not blinded.

    “In children (age 6–8 years), Bacopa syrup (350 mg Bacopa powder), when administered three times a day for three months, resulted in significant improvement as compared to the placebo [92]. However, this study was not blinded.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] Sharma, 1987, Efficacy of Bacopa monnieri in revitalizing intellectual functions in children, J. Res. Educ. Indian Med.

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    Premisecitation

    The LD50 of orally administered Bacopa extracts in rats was 5 g/kg for aqueous extract and 17 g/kg for alcoholic extract.

    “The LD50 of orally administered Bacopa extracts in rats was 5 g/kg for aqueous extract and 17 g/kg of the alcoholic extract [77].”
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    • cites [77] Singh, 1997, Neuropsychopharmacological effects of the Ayurvedic nootropic Bacopa monniera Linn. (Brahmi), Indian J. Pharmacol.

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    Premisecitation

    In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, Centella asiatica extract administered to healthy volunteers at 250-750 mg once daily for 2 months; the high dose enhanced working memory and improved self-rated mood.

    “In a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled, study, C. asiatica extract was administered to healthy volunteers as 250–750 mg once daily dose for 2 months. The high dose enhanced working memory and improved self-rated mood [68].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] Wattanathorn, 2008, Positive modulation of cognition and mood in the healthy elderly volunteer following the administration of Centella asiatica, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

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    Premisecitation

    Bacopa at a dose of 50 mg/kg demonstrated a neuroprotective effect in the colchicine model of dementia through its antioxidant effect and restored the activity of Na+K+ATPase and AChE.

    “Bacopa, at the dose of 50 mg/kg, demonstrated the neuroprotective effect in the colchicine model of dementia through its antioxidant effect and restored the activity of Na+K+ATPase and AChE [85].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [85] Saini, 2012, Neuroprotective Effects of Bacopa monnieri in Experimental Model of Dementia, Neurochem. Res. source

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    Premisecitation

    Curcumin suppressed IL-1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein, reduced oxidative damage and plaque burden and decreased the amount of insoluble amyloid.

    “It also suppressed IL-1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein, reduced oxidative damage and plaque burden and decreased the amount of insoluble amyloid [26].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Cole, 2004, NSAID and antioxidant prevention of Alzheimer’s disease, lessons from in vitro and animal models, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. source

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    Premisecitation

    Curcumin reduces both in-vivo and in-vitro Aβ plaque deposition.

    “Curcumin has been shown to reduce both in-vivo and in-vitro Aβ plaque deposition [106,107].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [106] Lim, 2001, The Curry Spice Curcumin Reduces Oxidative Damage and Amyloid Pathology in an Alzheimer Transgenic Mouse, J. Neurosci. source

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    • cites [107] Yang, 2005, Curcumin inhibits formation of amyloid beta oligomers and fibrils, binds plaques, and reduces amyloid in vivo, J. Biol. Chem. source

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    Premisecitation

    Curcumin treatment for 7 days caused reduction in plaque burden and reversed structural changes in dystrophic dendrites in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

    “Additionally, curcumin treatment for 7 days caused reduction in plaques burden and reversed structural changes in dystrophic dendrites in APPswe/PS1dE9 mouse model of AD [112].”
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    • cites [112] Ramassamy, 2008, Faculty Opinions recommendation of Curcumin labels amyloid pathology in vivo, disrupts existing plaques, and partially restores distorted neurites in an Alzheimer mouse model, Fac. Opin. Post-Publ. Peer Rev. Biomed. Lit.

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    Premisecitation

    Curcumin has been reported in various experimental studies to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cholesterol-lowering properties, all three of which are key processes involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.

    “It has been reported in various experimental studies to possess wide variety of biological and pharmacological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cholesterol-lowering properties, all three of which are key processes involved in the pathogenesis of AD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Curcumin treatment restored learning and memory functions in the streptozotocin model of Alzheimer's disease by reducing oxidative stress, enhancing ChAT activity and restoring insulin receptor protein.

    “Another experimental study showed that curcumin treatment restored learning and memory functions in the STZ model of AD by reducing the oxidative stress, enhancing ChAT activity and restoring insulin receptor protein [117,118].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [117] Agrawal, 2010, Effect of curcumin on brain insulin receptors and memory functions in STZ (ICV) induced dementia model of rat, Pharm. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [118] Ishrat, 2009, Amelioration of cognitive deficits and neurodegeneration by curcumin in rat model of sporadic dementia of Alzheimer’s type (SDAT), Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Curcumin can reduce two proamyloidogenic factors, oxidative damage and raised cholesterol levels.

    “Curcumin can also reduce two other proamyloidogenic factors, oxidative damage [125,126] and raised cholesterol levels [127].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [125] Friedlich, 1994, Involvement of free oxygen radicals in beta-amyloidosis, an hypothesis, Neurobiol. Aging source

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    • cites [126] Hensley, 1994, A model for beta-amyloid aggregation and neurotoxicity based on free radical generation by the peptide: Relevance to Alzheimer disease, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [127] Soudamini, 1992, Inhibition of lipid peroxidation and cholesterol levels in mice by curcumin, Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol.

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) coated curcumin nanoparticles can destroy amyloid aggregation and exhibit antioxidative activity without a cytotoxic effect.

    “These nanoparticles were found to be able to destroy amyloid aggregation and exhibit antioxidative activity without a cytotoxic effect [99,100].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [99] Mathew, A., Fukuda, T., Nagaoka, Y., Hasumura, T., Morimoto, H., Yoshida, Y., Maekawa, T., Venugopal, K., and Kumar, D.S. (2012). Curcumin loaded-PLGA nanoparticles conjugated with Tet-1 peptide for potential use in Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS ONE, 7. source

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    • cites [100] Tiwari, 2013, Correction to Curcumin-Loaded Nanoparticles Potently Induce Adult Neurogenesis and Reverse Cognitive Deficits in Alzheimer’s Disease Model via Canonical Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway, ACS Nano source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nanoliposomes of curcumin have high affinity for Aβ1-42 fibrils and inhibit the formation of fibrillar and oligomeric Aβ in-vitro.

    “Nanoliposomes of curcumin have high affinity for Aβ1-42 fibrils and were found to inhibit the formation of fibrillar and oligomeric Aβ in-vitro [101,102].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [101] Mourtas, 2011, Curcumin-decorated nanoliposomes with very high affinity for amyloid-β1-42 peptide, Biomaterials source

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    • cites [102] Taylor, 2011, Effect of curcumin-associated and lipid ligand-functionalized nanoliposomes on aggregation of the Alzheimer’s Aβ peptide, Nanomedicine source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Curcumin can inhibit Aβ aggregation or promote its disaggregation at low concentrations (IC50 = 0.81-1 μM).

    “Curcumin can inhibit Aβ aggregation or promote its disaggregation at low concentrations (IC50 = 0.81–1 μM).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial reported that Bacopa treatment (300 mg/kg daily) for 12 weeks caused increased stool frequency, abdominal cramps and nausea, which may be due to either an upregulation of acetylcholine level or saponin-mediated gastrointestinal tract irritation, or both.

    “A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial reported that Bacopa treatment (300 mg/kg, daily) for 12 weeks caused increased stool frequency, abdominal cramps and nausea, which may be due to either an upregulation of ACh level or saponin-mediated gastrointestinal tract irritation, or both [91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] Morgan, 2010, Does Bacopa monnieri Improve Memory Performance in Older Persons? Results of a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Trial, J. Altern. Complement. Med. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Curcumin demonstrated a protective effect against Aβ neurotoxicity by decreasing Aβ production through downregulation of presenilin 1 and GSK-3-β expression and accelerating Aβ fibril conversion.

    “Curcumin also demonstrated a protective effect against Aβ neurotoxicity by decreasing Aβ production through downregulation of presenilin 1 (PS1) and GSK-3-β expression and accelerating Aβ fibril conversion [104,105].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [104] Caesar, I., Jonson, M., Nilsson, K.P.R., Thor, S., and Hammarström, P. (2012). Curcumin Promotes A-beta Fibrillation and Reduces Neurotoxicity in Transgenic Drosophila. PLoS ONE, 7. source

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    • cites [105] Xiong, 2011, Curcumin mediates presenilin-1 activity to reduce β-amyloid production in a model of Alzheimer’s disease, Pharm. Rep. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Apolipoprotein E3 mediated poly(butyl) cyanoacrylate nanoparticles containing curcumin provided photostability, enhanced cellular uptake of curcumin and increased its efficacy against Aβ induced cytotoxicity.

    “Apolipoprotein E3 mediated poly(butyl) cyanoacrylate nanoparticles containing curcumin (ApoE3-C-PBCA) provided photostability, enhanced the cellular uptake of curcumin and increased its efficacy against Aβ induced cytotoxicity [103].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [103] Mulik, 2010, ApoE3 Mediated Poly(butyl) Cyanoacrylate Nanoparticles Containing Curcumin: Study of Enhanced Activity of Curcumin against Beta Amyloid Induced Cytotoxicity Using In Vitro Cell Culture Model, Mol. Pharm. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The intraperitoneal LD50 was 1000 mg/kg for aqueous extract and 15 g/kg for alcoholic extract.

    “The intraperitoneal LD50 was 1000 mg/kg for aqueous extract and 15 g/kg for alcoholic extract [94].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [94] Martis, 1992, Neuropharmacological activity of Herpestis monniera, Fitoterapia

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low dose curcumin significantly lowered the soluble Aβ levels, insoluble amyloid and plaque burden by nearly 40%.

    “Low dose curcumin significantly lowered the soluble Aβ levels, insoluble amyloid and plaque burden by nearly 40% [106].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [106] Lim, 2001, The Curry Spice Curcumin Reduces Oxidative Damage and Amyloid Pathology in an Alzheimer Transgenic Mouse, J. Neurosci. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Impaired insulin or insulin-like growth factor-1 signaling is associated with Alzheimer's disease; it leads to hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and necrosis, and contributes to cognitive impairment.

    “Impaired insulin or insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) signaling is associated with AD. It leads to hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and necrosis, and contributes to cognitive impairment [113,114,115].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [113] Wands, 2005, Review of insulin and insulin-like growth factor expression, signaling, and malfunction in the central nervous system, relevance to Alzheimer’s disease, J. Alzheimers Dis. source

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    • cites [114] Schubert, 2003, Insulin Receptor Substrate-2 Deficiency Impairs Brain Growth and Promotes Tau Phosphorylation, J. Neurosci. source

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    • cites [115] Schubert, 2004, Role for neuronal insulin resistance in neurodegenerative diseases, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    W. somnifera exhibits a broad range of biological activities including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, antischemic, anti-Parkinson's, antiepileptic, anxiolytic, antidepression, antiarthritic, cardioprotective, antidiabetic, anticancer, antistress, nephroprotective, heptoprotective, antihypoxic, immunomodulatory, hypolipidaemic and antimicrobial.

    “W. somnifera exhibits a broad range of biological activities like anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, antischemic, anti-Parkinson’s, antiepileptic, anxiolytic, antidepression, antiarthritic, cardioprotective, antidiabetic, anticancer, antistress, nephroprotective, heptoprotective, antihypoxic, immunomodulatory, hypolipidaemic and antimicrobial [152].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [152] Kumar, 2015, Chemistry and pharmacology of Withania somnifera: An update, Tang (Humanit. Med.)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Curcumin chelates iron and copper (but not zinc) bound to beta amyloid, potentially contributing to amyloid reduction.

    “Evidence also suggests that metals are concentrated in the AD brain and curcumin chelates iron and copper (but not zinc) bound to beta amyloid potentially contributing to amyloid reduction [134].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134] Baum, 2004, Curcumin interaction with copper and iron suggests one possible mechanism of action in Alzheimer’s disease animal models, J. Alzheimers Dis. source

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  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Ethanolic extract of aerials parts and root of C. ternatea at 200-3000 mg/kg p.o in mice caused a cathartic effect.

    “Ethanolic extract of aerials parts and root of C. ternatea have been studied at 200–3000 mg/kg, p.o in mice. A cathartic effect of root extract was observed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [140] Taranalli, 2000, Influence of Clitoria ternatea extracts on memory and central cholinergic activity in rats, Pharm Biol. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    C. ternatea extract was not lethal orally but resulted in severe CNS depression and death when used intraperitoneally at dose of 2900 mg/kg and above.

    “The extract was not lethal orally but resulted in severe CNS depression and death when used intraperitoneally at dose of 2900 mg/kg and above [140].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [140] Taranalli, 2000, Influence of Clitoria ternatea extracts on memory and central cholinergic activity in rats, Pharm Biol. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In an acute toxicity study, ethanolic extract of rhizome of Curcuma longa at doses of 0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 mg/kg did not cause any sign of toxicity in mice; no toxicity was found at 100 mg/kg/day in a 90-day toxicity study in mice.

    “In an acute toxicity study, ethanolic extract of rhizome of C. longa at the doses of 0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 mg/kg did not cause any sign of toxicity in mice. Moreover, no toxicity was found at 100 mg/kg/day in the 90-day toxicity study in mice [137].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [137] Qadri, 2001, Acute toxicological evaluation of the aqueous extract of Eclipta alba Hassk, Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    C. ternatea root extract improved retention in the passive avoidance task and spatial performance in the T-maze test in neonatal rats at 50 and 100 mg/kg for 30 days.

    “The extract improved retention in the passive avoidance task and spatial performance in the T-maze test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Rai, 2001, Clitoria ternatea (Linn) root extract treatment during growth spurt period enhances learning and memory in rats, Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol.

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mice treated with C. ternatea extract above 2000 mg/kg had ptosis and were lethargic.

    “Mice treated with a dose above 2000 mg/kg had ptosis and were lethargic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [140] Taranalli, 2000, Influence of Clitoria ternatea extracts on memory and central cholinergic activity in rats, Pharm Biol. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sitoindosides VII-X and withaferin (40 mg/kg for 7 days) differentially but favorably altered AChE activity and enhanced M1- and M2-muscarinic receptor-binding in various brain regions.

    “Sitoindosides VII-X and withaferin differentially (40 mg/kg for 7 days) but favorably altered the AChE activity and enhanced M1- and M2-muscarinic receptor-binding in various brain regions [157].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [157] Schliebs, 1997, Systemic administration of defined extracts from Withania somnifera (Indian ginseng) and Shilajit differentially affects cholinergic but not glutamatergic and GABAergic markers in rat brain, Neurochem. Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    β-amyloid fibril formation was prevented, possibly due to the presence of a serotonin moiety in both withanamide compounds.

    “In the same study, β-amyloid fibril formation was prevented, possibly due to the presence of a serotonin moiety in both withanamide compounds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [160] Jayaprakasam, 2010, Withanamides in Withania somnifera fruit protect PC-12 cells from beta-amyloid responsible for Alzheimer’s disease, Phytother Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Treatment with Withania root extract (1 g/kg, p.o for 30 days) reversed the AD pathology by upregulating the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein, which enhanced the Aβ clearance and ameliorated the cognitive deficit in middle-aged and old APP/PS1 mice.

    “Treatment with Withania root extract (1 g/kg, p.o for 30 days) reversed the AD pathology by upregulating the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein, which enhanced the Aβ clearance and ameliorated the cognitive deficit in middle-aged and old APP/PS1 mice [161].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [161] Sehgal, 2012, Withania somnifera reverses Alzheimer’s disease pathology by enhancing low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein in liver, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    W. somnifera extract ameliorated cognitive impairment and improved executive functions in adults with mild cognitive impairment.

    “In a systematic review, Ng and colleagues mentioned that W. somnifera extract ameliorated cognitive impairment and improved executive functions in adults with mild cognitive impairment [169].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [169] Ng, 2019, A systematic review of the clinical use of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) to ameliorate cognitive dysfunction, Phytother. Res. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In-vitro, aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts of E. alsinoides showed free radicals scavenging, anti-inflammatory and enzymes (cholinesterase, glycogen synthase kinase-3-β, Rho kinase (ROCKI I), prolyl endopeptidase, catechol-o-methyl transferase and monoglycerol lipase) inhibitory activity, all of which are involved in the pathophysiology of AD.

    “In-vitro, aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts of E. alsinoides showed free radicals scavenging, anti-inflammatory and enzymes (cholinesterase, glycogen synthase kinase-3-β, Rho kinase (ROCKI I), prolyl endopeptidase, catechol-o-methyl transferase and monoglycerol lipase) inhibitory activity, all of which are involved in the pathophysiology of AD [15].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Mehla, 2012, Amelioration of intracerebroventricular streptozotocin induced cognitive impairment by Evolvulus alsinoides in rats: In vitro and in vivo evidence, Neurochem. Int. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The oil of C. paniculatus seeds when given for 14 days to Wistar rats at a dose of 400 mg/kg resulted in enhanced learning and memory in radial arm maze and decreased the AChE enzyme activity in hypothalamus, frontal cortex and hippocampus.

    “The oil of C. paniculatus seeds when given for 14 days to Wistar rats at a dose of 400 mg/kg resulted in enhanced learning and memory in radial arm maze and decreased the AChE enzyme activity in hypothalamus, frontal cortex and hippocampus [178].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [178] Lekha, 2010, Cognitive enhancement and Neuroprotective effect of Celastrus paniculatus Willd. seed oil (Jyothismati oil) on male Wistar rats, J. Pharma. Sci. Tech.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    W. somnifera (20 mg/mL) treatment mitigated the Aβ toxicity and mediated longevity in the AD model of Drosophila melanogaster.

    “W. somnifera (20 mg/mL) treatment mitigated the Aβ toxicity and mediated longevity in the AD model of Drosophila melanogaster [167].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [167] Halim, M.A., Rosli, I.M., Jaafar, S.S.M., Ooi, H., Leong, P., Shamsuddin, S., Najimudin, N., and Azzam, G. (2020). Withania somnifera showed neuroprotective effect and increase longevity in Drosophila Alzheimer’s disease model. bioRxiv. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The methanol and water extract of E. alsinoides exhibited acetylcholinesterase activity, supporting its potential in reverting neuronal dysfunctions and thus in management of AD.

    “The methanol and water extract of E. alsinoides documented to exhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, supporting its potential in reverting neuronal dysfunctions and thus in management of AD [193].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [193] Patel, 2018, Medicinal plants with acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity, Rev. Neurosci. source

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    • Rests on an assumption: Animal models of cognitive impairment (e.g., scopolamine, ICV-STZ, ibotenic acid) are predictive of human AD and cognitive impairment.
    • Rests on an assumption: In vitro findings (e.g., AChE inhibition, antioxidant activity) translate to in vivo cognitive benefits.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The seed oil treatment for 14 days at the doses of 50, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o reversed scopolamine induced spatial memory impairment in the Morris water maze and increased locomotor activity without affecting AChE activity in rats.

    “The seed oil treatment for 14 days at the doses of 50, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o reversed scopolamine induced spatial memory impairment in the Morris water maze and increased locomotor activity without affecting AChE activity in rats [180].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [180] Gattu, 1997, Reversal of Scopolamine-Induced Deficits in Navigational Memory Performance by the Seed Oil of Celastrus paniculatus, Pharm. Biochem. Behav. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kim et al. reported that butanol fraction increased ACh content, decreased MAO-B activity and reduced oxidative stress in the rat brain.

    “Kim et al. [209] also reported that butanol fraction increased ACh content, decreased MAO-B activity and reduced oxidative stress in the rat brain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [209] Kim, 2010, The butanol fraction of Eclipta prostrata (Linn) increases the formation of brain acetylcholine and decreases oxidative stress in the brain and serum of cesarean-derived rats, Nutr. Res. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The root extract and their chemical constituents such as glycowithanolides also possess anxiolytic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which may be relevant in AD treatment.

    “The root extract and their chemical constituents such as glycowithanolides also possess anxiolytic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which may be relevant in AD treatment [164,165].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [164] Dhuley, 1998, Effect of ashwagandha on lipid peroxidation in stress-induced animals, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

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    • cites [165] Panda, 1997, Evidence for free radical scavenging activity of Ashwagandha root powder in mice, Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Treatment with ashwagandha-root extract (300 mg twice daily for eight weeks) improved immediate and general memory functions and enhanced executive function, attention and information processing speed in adults with a mild cognitive impairment.

    “A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study reported that treatment with ashwagandha-root extract (300 mg twice daily for eight weeks) improved immediate and general memory functions and enhanced executive function, attention and information processing speed in adults with a mild cognitive impairment [168].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [168] Choudhary, 2017, Efficacy and Safety of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal) Root Extract in Improving Memory and Cognitive Functions, J. Diet. Suppl. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The aqueous seed extract of C. paniculatus improved memory performance in elevated plus maze and in sodium nitrite induced amnesia by reducing the AChE activity.

    “The aqueous seed extract improved memory performance in elevated plus maze and in sodium nitrite induced amnesia by reducing the AChE activity [181].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [181] Bhanumathy, 2010, Nootropic activity of Celastrus paniculatus seed, Pharm. Biol. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Withanone, a chemical constituent from root extract of W. somnifera, showed improvement in cognitive functions by inhibiting amyloid processing and reducing the elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress markers.

    “Furthermore, withanone, a chemical constituent from root extract of W. somnifera showed improvement in cognitive functions by inhibiting amyloid processing and reducing the elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress markers [166].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [166] Pandey, 2018, Multifunctional neuroprotective effect of Withanone, a compound from Withania somnifera roots in alleviating cognitive dysfunction, Cytokine source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    C. pluricaulis possesses antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects, which may be partially responsible for improvement in cognitive function.

    “C. pluricaulis also possesses antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects, which may be partially responsible for improvement in cognitive function [190,241].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [190] Nahata, 2009, Anxiolytic activity of Evolvulus alsinoides and Convulvulus pluricaulis in rodents, Pharm Biol. source

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    • cites [241] Chaturvedi, 1997, Hypolipidaemic effect of Convolvulus microphyllus on cholesterol fed gerbils, J. Phytol. Res.

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    C. pluricaulis administration for 3 months at the dose of 150 mg/kg prevented aluminum chloride induced neurotoxicity by decreasing AChE activity, reducing oxidative stress and preserving the activity of ChAT and Nerve Growth Factor-Tyrosine kinase A receptor (NGF-TrkA).

    “C. pluricaulis administration for 3 months at the dose of 150 mg/kg prevented aluminum chloride induced neurotoxicity by decreasing AChE activity, reducing oxidative stress and preserving the activity of ChAT and Nerve Growth Factor-Tyrosine kinase A receptor (NGF-TrkA) [242].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [242] Bihaqi, 2009, Neuroprotective role of Convolvulus pluricaulis on aluminium induced neurotoxicity in rat brain, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Administration of Mentat for 20 days at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day significantly prolonged the shortened step-through latency induced by aluminum administration and also significantly improved retention of learning in aged rats.

    “Administration for 20 days at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day significantly prolonged the shortened step-through latency induced by aluminum administration and also significantly improved retention of learning in aged rats [248].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [248] Handa, 1997, Effect of BR-16A (MentatR) on cognitive deficits in aluminium-treated and aged rats, Indian J. Pharmacol.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sharma et al. reported that the ethanolic extract of C. pluricaulis at 100 and 200 mg/kg oral dose significantly improved memory in young and aged mice but the retention was better in young mice.

    “Sharma et al. [240] also reported that the ethanolic extract at 100 and 200 mg/kg oral dose significantly improved memory in young and aged mice but the retention was better in young mice.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [240] Sharma, 2010, Effect of Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy and Asparagus racemosus Willd on learning and memory in young and old mice: A comparative evaluation, Indian J. Exp. Boil.

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The LD50 of Mentat was found to be 1.75 g/kg after intraperitoneal injection and 2400 mg/kg after oral administration.

    “The LD50 was found to be 1.75 g/kg after intraperitoneal injection [254] and 2400 mg/kg after oral administration [250].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [254] Jagetia, 2003, Treatment of mice with a herbal preparation (Mentat) protects against radiation-induced mortality, Phytother. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [250] Verma, 1991, Effect of a herbal psychotropic preparation, BR-16A (Mentat), on performance of mice on elevated plus-maze, Indian J. Exp. Boil.

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    BR-16A (Mentat) is a polyherbal formulation used as Medhya Rasayana in Ayurveda and is used to improve memory and cognitive deficits associated with chronic illness and aging.

    “BR-16A (Mentat) is a polyherbal formulation used as Medhya Rasayana in Ayurveda and is used to improve memory and cognitive deficits associated with chronic illness and aging [156].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [156] Bhattacharya, 1995, Effects of glycowithanolides from Withania somnifera on an animal model of Alzheimer’s disease and perturbed central cholinergic markers of cognition in rats, Phytother. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Convolvine, a chemical constituent of C. pluricaulis, potentiated the effect of arecoline (memory enhancer) and improved cognitive dysfunction in AD.

    “Convolvine, a chemical constituent of C. pluricaulis potentiated the effect of arecoline (memory enhancer) and improved cognitive dysfunction in AD [238,239].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [238] Asthana, 1996, Clinical pharmacokinetics of arecoline in subjects with Alzheimer’s disease, Clin. Pharm.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [239] Mirzaev, 1998, Neuro- and psychopharmacological investigation of the alkaloids convolvine and atropine, Chem. Nat. Compd. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mentat improved memory quotient of normal subjects in different age groups, increased memory span and attenuated fluctuations of attention in normal adults and improved learning ability in children with behavioral problems or minimal brain damage.

    “It improved memory quotient of normal subjects in different age groups [252], increased memory span and attenuated fluctuations of attention in normal adults and improved learning ability in children with behavioral problems or minimal brain damage [253].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [252] Agarwal, 1991, Effect of Mentat on memory, anxiety scores and neuroticism index in normal subjectsin three age groups, Probe

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [253] Koti, 1991, Effect of Mentat on school students performance, Probe

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    E. alba possesses antiviral, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, bronchodilator, antibacterial, antipyretic, tonic, expectorant and hepatoprotective activity.

    “E. alba also possesses antiviral, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, bronchodilator, antibacterial, antipyretic, tonic, expectorant and hepatoprotective activity [211,212].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [211] Kirtikar, K.R., and Basu, B.D. (1975). Indian Medicinal Plants, Jayyed Press. [2nd ed.].

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [212] Rajagopal, V. (2002). Standardization of Botanicals, Eastern Publishers.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mentat has been shown to augment acquisition and retention of learning in rats and prevented cognitive deficits induced by variety of insults including prenatal undernutrition, postnatal environmental impoverishment, sodium nitrite hypoxia, aluminum, increasing age and electroconvulsive shock induced antero-grade and retro-grade amnesia.

    “Mentat has been shown to augment acquisition and retention of learning in rats and prevented cognitive deficits induced by variety of insults including prenatal undernutrition, postnatal environmental impoverishment, sodium nitrite hypoxia, aluminum, increasing age and electroconvulsive shock induced antero-grade and retro-grade amnesia [246,247,248].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [246] Bhattacharya, 1994, Nootropic effect of BR-16A (Mentat), a psychotropic herbal formulation, on cognitive deficits induced by prenatal undernutrition, postnatal environmental impoverishment and hypoxia in rats, Indian J. Exp. Boil.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [247] Faruqi, 1995, Herbal pharmacotherapy for the attenuation of electroconvulsive shock-induced anterograde and retrograde amnestic deficits, Convuls. Ther.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [248] Handa, 1997, Effect of BR-16A (MentatR) on cognitive deficits in aluminium-treated and aged rats, Indian J. Pharmacol.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The alcoholic extract of E. alba did not show any toxicity in rats and mice and the minimum lethal dose was found to be greater than 2.0 g/kg when given orally and intraperitonially in mice.

    “The alcoholic extract did not show any toxicity in rats and mice and the minimum lethal dose was found to be greater than 2.0 g/kg when given orally and intraperitonially in mice [214].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [214] Singh, 1993, Hepatoprotective effect of ethanolic extract ofEclipta alba on experimental liver damage in rats and mice, Phytother. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lipid lowering and antioxidant activities of Eclipta plants have been reported.

    “Lipid lowering and antioxidant activities of Eclipta plants have also been reported [210].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [210] Kim, 2008, The butanol fraction of Eclipta prostrata (Linn) effectively reduces serum lipid levels and improves antioxidant activities in CD rats, Nutr. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ethanolic leaf extract of M. oleifera at a dose of 250 mg/kg, p.o for 14 days provided protection against cognitive impairment induced by ICV-colchicine and restored colchicine induced changes in the brain norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine levels.

    “The ethanolic leaf extract at a dose of 250 mg/kg, p.o for 14 days provided protection against cognitive impairment induced by ICV–colchicine. It restored colchicine induced changes in the brain norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine levels [224].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [224] Ganguly, 2008, Alteration of brain monoamines & EEG wave pattern in rat model of Alzheimer’s disease & protection by Moringa oleifera, Indian J. Med Res.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Several adverse effects associated with herbal medicines may be due to improper labeling, unknown composition, a lack of standardization, inferior quality, contamination, adulteration, improper use and even quackery.

    “Apart from these inherent risks of herbal medicines, several adverse effects associated with them may be due to improper labeling, unknown composition, a lack of standardization, inferior quality, contamination, adulteration, improper use and even quackery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Much work remains to be done to translate the potential of medicinal plants into actual medicine.

    “However, much work remains to be done to translate this potential into actual medicine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Abana improves memory, which may be due to reduction in brain AChE activity.

    “The results of these studies indicate that Abana improves memory, which may be due to reduction in brain AChE activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [261] Parle, 2007, Memory Enhancing Activity of Abana®: An Indian Ayurvedic Poly-Herbal Formulation, J. Health Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Animal models of cognitive impairment (e.g., scopolamine, ICV-STZ, ibotenic acid) are predictive of human AD and cognitive impairment.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Medicinal plants provide a fertile ground for new drug discovery because of the presence of various chemical constituents and their ability to act on different biological targets.

    “Medicinal plants provide a fertile ground for new drug discovery because of the presence of various chemical constituents and their ability to act on different biological targets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The effect of memorin was evaluated by Andrade, 1998 in an age related memory disorder and reported beneficial effects in elderly persons who experienced age related memory decline.

    “The effect of memorin was evaluated by Andrade, 1998 in an age related memory disorder and reported beneficial effects in elderly persons who experienced age related memory decline [256].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [256] Andrade, 1998, Treatment of Age-Related Cognitive Decline with a Herbal Formulation: A Double-Blind Study, Indian J. Psychiatry

      Not checked in the free run.

82 of 82

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings from animal models of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive impairment predict clinical efficacy in human Alzheimer's disease patients.

    “Various CNS active Indian herbal medicines like Withania somnifera, Centella asiatica, Celastrus paniculatus and Bacopa monnieri have shown cognitive improvement in experimental models of AD when given as prophylactic treatment [43,44,45,46,47,48].”
    “Thus, this multitarget compound is a promising therapeutic agent for AD and associated cognitive decline.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The pathological mechanisms targeted by herbal medicines in preclinical models correspond to those in human Alzheimer's disease.

    “Herbal medicines, supported by a wealth of traditional knowledge, may serve the purpose as they can target AD pathophysiology at multiple sites, both at cellular and molecular levels.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Animal models of cognitive impairment (e.g., scopolamine, ICV-STZ, ibotenic acid) are predictive of human AD and cognitive impairment.

    “These observations suggest that C. ternatea extract exerts its beneficial effect by preventing the progression of cognitive deterioration in AD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Traditional Ayurvedic use of these herbs for memory enhancement provides a valid rationale for investigating them in AD.

    “It is traditionally used as a memory enhancer in children and elderly and for neurological disorders like epilepsy [184].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In vitro findings (e.g., AChE inhibition, antioxidant activity) translate to in vivo cognitive benefits.

    “The methanol and water extract of E. alsinoides documented to exhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, supporting its potential in reverting neuronal dysfunctions and thus in management of AD [193].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Extraction technique and processing step may cause variation in the concentration of active constituents in herbal medicines.

    “Extraction technique and processing step may cause variation in the concentration of active constituents, which necessitates quality control of herbal medicines.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Herbal drugs contain numerous unidentified constituents, which make it difficult to assess the nature of interactions.

    “Herbal drugs contain numerous unidentified constituents, which make it difficult to assess the nature of interactions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Heterogeneity in doses and frequency of use obstructs precise assessment of drug interactions.

    “Heterogeneity in doses and frequency of use also obstruct precise assessment of drug interactions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ginkgo biloba when given with donepezil causes an increased effect in Alzheimer's disease due to additive cholinergic activity.

    “Ginkgo biloba when given with donepezil cause an increased effect in AD due to additive cholinergic activity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ginkgo biloba when given with phenytoin causes breakthrough seizures due to induction of CYP2C19.

    “However, when it was given with phenytoin, it causes breakthrough seizures due to the induction of CYP2C19.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the elderly population, the absorption, metabolism and elimination of drugs are already impaired.

    “In the elderly population, the absorption, metabolism and elimination of drugs are already impaired.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Herbal drugs are many times substituted or adulterated with other inferior products with morphological resemblance of the authentic herb.

    “Herbal drugs are many times substituted or adulterated with other inferior products with morphological resemblance of authentic herb.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This type of adulteration is more common for herbs with volatile components.

    “This type of adulteration is more common for herbs with volatile components.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The adulterants may not have a therapeutic benefit or may even cause adverse effects.

    “The adulterants may not have a therapeutic benefit or may even cause adverse effects.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Proper labeling can reduce the risk of inappropriate use and adverse effects.

    “Proper labeling can reduce the risk of inappropriate use and adverse effects.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Traditional systems of medicine suffer from a lack of or inadequate regulatory guidelines.

    “traditional systems of medicine suffer from a lack of or inadequate regulatory guidelines.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Herbal medicines are widely perceived to be safe due to their natural origins.

    “herbal medicines are widely perceived to be safe due to their natural origins.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Patients with Alzheimer's disease constitute a special subgroup due to their vulnerability and their inability to communicate adverse events in later stages of the disease.

    “Patients with Alzheimer’s disease constitute a special subgroup due to their vulnerability and their inability to communicate adverse events, in later stages of the disease.”
18 of 18

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Centella study described as using rats, but cited study names mice

    Minor

    The text describes Rao et al. [53] as a rat study, while the cited reference identifies the study as being in mice.

  • Eclipta memory claim cites a balloon-flower study

    Minor

    The text attributes prevention of ethanol-induced memory impairment to E. prostrate saponins, whereas the cited reference [208] names balloon flower saponin.

  • Curcuma toxicity claim cites an Eclipta study

    Minor

    The claim concerns ethanolic Curcuma longa rhizome extract, but reference [137] is titled as a toxicity evaluation of aqueous Eclipta alba extract.

3 of 3

Cites

1 retracted

Flagged first, then by citations

35 of the 277 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 20

  1. Kumar, A., Sidhu, J., Goyal, A., Goyal, A., and Tsao, J.W. (2020, November 25). Alzheimer Disease, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499922/.
  2. Cracker, L.E., and Simon, J.E. (1998). Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants, Oryx Press.
  3. Chivapat, 2004, Toxicity study of Centella asiatica (L) urban, J. Thai Trad Alt Med., 2, 3
  4. Srinath, 2014, Memory enhancing medicinal herbs, J. Pharm. Sci. Res., 6, 331
  5. Sharma, 1987, Efficacy of Bacopa monnieri in revitalizing intellectual functions in children, J. Res. Educ. Indian Med., 1, 12
  6. Negi, 2000, Clinical evaluation of memory enhancing properties of Memory Plus in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Indian J. Psychiatry., 42, 42
  7. Qadri, 2001, Acute toxicological evaluation of the aqueous extract of Eclipta alba Hassk, Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 44, 38
  8. Bone, K. (1996). Clinical Applications of Ayurvedic and Chinese Herbs. Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner, Phytotherapy Press.
  9. Ramaiah, 2018, Traditional, Ethnomedical, and Pharmacological uses of Celastrus paniculatus, Asian J. Pharm., 12, S1119
  10. Lekha, 2010, Cognitive enhancement and Neuroprotective effect of Celastrus paniculatus Willd. seed oil (Jyothismati oil) on male Wistar rats, J. Pharma. Sci. Tech., 2, 130
  11. Karanth, 1980, Effect of Celastrus paniculatus on learning process, Arogya, 6, 137
  12. Rajani, 2007, Prasad KVSRG. Effect of Eclipta alba Linn on learning and memory in rats, Indian J. Pharm. Educ. Res., 41, 369
  13. Kirtikar, K.R., and Basu, B.D. (1975). Indian Medicinal Plants, Jayyed Press. [2nd ed.].
  14. Singh, 1996, Ethnomedicinal uses of plants of Gonda district forests of Uttar Pradesh, India, Fitoterapia., 2, 129
  15. Dubey, 1994, Combined effect of Brahmi (Bacopa monniera) and Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) on cognitive functions, Pharmacopsychoecol, 3, 249
  16. Sharma, 2009, Anxiolytic effect of Convolvulus pluricaulis petals on elevated plus maze model of anxiety in mice, J. Herb. Med. Toxicol., 1, 41
  17. Chaturvedi, 1997, Hypolipidaemic effect of Convolvulus microphyllus on cholesterol fed gerbils, J. Phytol. Res., 2, 153
  18. Bhattacharya, 1995, Effect of Mentat, a Herbal Formulation, on Experimental Models of Alzheimer’s Disease and Central Cholinergic Markers in Rats, Fitoterapia, 3, 216
  19. Agarwal, 1991, Effect of Mentat on memory, anxiety scores and neuroticism index in normal subjectsin three age groups, Probe, 3, 257
  20. Koti, 1991, Effect of Mentat on school students performance, Probe, 3, 250

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Mehla, J., Gupta, P., Pahuja, M., Diwan, D., & Diksha, D.
Affiliations
  • Washington University in St. Louis (US)
  • All India Institute of Medical Sciences (IN)
  • Government of India (IN)
Corresponding author
  • Mehla, Jogender
  • Gupta, Pooja
ORCID
Venue
Brain Sciences
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2020-12-10
Volume
10
Issue
12
Pages
964
ISSN
2076-3425 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/brainsci10120964
PMC
PMC7764187
OpenAlex
W3113093720
Semantic Scholar
ad3dedf5b6c715584af2085293f9be9955fdc2f2
Cited by
108
References
277
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 13
FWCI
2.19
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Brain Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Digital Commons@Becker (Washington University School of Medicine) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Medicinal Plants and Neuroprotection
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Phytochemicals and Medicinal Plants
Keywords
Alzheimer's disease, herbal formula, cognitive impairment, cholinesterase inhibition, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, Centella asiatica, Bacopa monnieri, turmeric, Clitoria ternatea, Withania somnifera, Celastrus paniculatus, Evolvulus alsinoides, Desmodium gangeticum, Eclipta prostrata, Moringa oleifera, Convolvulus pluricaulis, memory impairment, traditional knowledge

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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