Cued for risk: Evidence for an incentive sensitization framework to explain the interplay between stress and anxiety, substance abuse, and reward uncertainty in disordered gambling behavior

In the paper

“Similarly, individuals with nicotine or alcohol related substance use disorders are also more likely to meet the diagnostic criteria for GD compared to the general population (Krmpotich et al., 2015; Petry et al., 2005; Rennert et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Discussion reports pathological gambling in 27% of substance-dependent patients in treatment, compared with 3% of the general population. But the Methods specify that study participants had psychostimulant dependence; the paper does not establish this comparison specifically for people with nicotine or alcohol use disorders. Its statement about nicotine and alcohol runs in the opposite direction, reporting higher substance-dependence rates among people with pathological gambling. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Krmpotich et al., 2015 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Not checked yetcites Petry et al., 2005 source
• Partly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) says gambling disorder is more prevalent among people with substance use disorders than in the general population and associates alcohol use disorder with greater gambling risk. The paper does not address nicotine-related substance use disorders, so it does not support that part of the claim. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Rennert et al., 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“In mice, chronic stress during adolescence has also been shown to increase alcohol preference and overall alcohol consumption in adulthood (Chester, Barrenha, Hughes, & Keuneke, 2008; Lopez, Doremus-Fitzwater, & Becker, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Methods describe 10 consecutive days of footshock exposure, and the Discussion reports increased alcohol intake and preference during the subsequent 30-day drinking period. However, the mice were selectively bred for high alcohol preference (HAP1); the paper cautions that the finding may be specific to them, so it does not establish the claim for mice generally. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Chester, Barrenha, Hughes, & Keuneke, 2008 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Discussion reports that repeated variable stress during adolescence heightened voluntary ethanol intake in adult mice, and the Results report greater intake on several testing days. The Methods list ethanol and water intake as outcomes, but do not report a measure or analysis of alcohol preference, so that part of the claim is not directly supported. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Lopez, Doremus-Fitzwater, & Becker, 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Gambling disorder often co-occurs with psychiatric disorders, particularly substance use and anxiety disorders (el-Guebaly et al., 2006; Kessler et al., 2008; Lorains, Cowlishaw, & Thomas, 2011; Parhami, Mojtabai, Rosenthal, Afifi, & Fong, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites el-Guebaly et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Lorains, Cowlishaw, & Thomas, 2011 source

In the paper

“The incentive sensitization theory has afforded valuable insight into the neurobiological and behavioral processes that are associated with individual vulnerability to addictive spectrum pathology, such as substance use disorders (T. E. Robinson & Berridge, 1993) and more recently, gambling disorder (Linnet, 2014; M. J. F. Robinson, Fischer, Ahuja, Lesser, & Maniates, 2015b; Rømer Thomsen et al.,”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites T. E. Robinson & Berridge, 1993 source
• Not checked yetcites Linnet, 2014
• Not checked yetcites M. J. F. Robinson, Fischer, Ahuja, Lesser, & Maniates, 2015b

In the paper

“We propose that incentive sensitization by reward uncertainty may interact with and predispose individuals to drug abuse and stress, creating a mechanism through which comorbidity of these disorders may emerge.”

In the paper

“Notably, evidence for sensitization of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway has been seen across gambling and substance use, as well as anxiety and stress-related pathology, with stress playing a major role in relapse.”

In the paper

“Together, this evidence highlights a phenomenon known as cross-sensitization, whereby sensitization to stress, drugs, or gambling behaviors enhance the sensitivity and dopaminergic response to any of those stimuli.”

In the paper

“Notably, evidence for sensitization of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway has been seen across gambling and substance use, as well as anxiety and stress-related pathology, with stress playing a major role in relapse.”

In the paper

“The high rates of comorbidity between these disorders have provided support on a broad level for an overlap in vulnerability and maintenance factors between anxiety, substance use, and gambling disorders.”

In the paper

“These findings not only support that gambling and substance use pathology may have significantly overlapping mechanisms, but also suggest that aspects of repeated gambling or substance use may actively confer risk for one another through biological, behavioral, or environmental pathways.”

In the paper

“The onset of a comorbid anxiety or substance use disorder has been significantly associated with endorsing gambling disorder diagnostic criteria (e.g. “gambling as an escape from negative affect”), supporting the notion that coping may play a significant role in the comorbidity between anxiety, substance use, and gambling disorders (Lister, Milosevic, & Ledgerwood, 2015; Parhami et al., 2014).”

In the paper

“The high incidence of substance use disorders in individuals with anxiety and stress-related disorders has been strongly associated with self-medication, suggesting that individuals with stress-related conditions may be more vulnerable to misuse substances to cope with aversive affective states (J. Robinson, Sareen, Cox, & Bolton, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites J. Robinson, Sareen, Cox, & Bolton, 2011 source

In the paper

“Building upon these findings, a “dose-dependent” relationship has been cited between anxiety, substance use, and gambling disorders, whereby the severity of the anxiety symptomatology is positively associated with that of the substance use or gambling disorder (Desai & Potenza, 2008; Giddens, Stefanovics, Pilver, Desai, & Potenza, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Desai & Potenza, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Giddens, Stefanovics, Pilver, Desai, & Potenza, 2012 source

In the paper

“Anxiety disorders, however, often precede the onset of gambling disorder or substance use disorders (Blanco et al., 2015; Kausch, Rugle, & Rowland, 2006; Kessler et al., 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Blanco et al., 2015 source
• Not checked yetcites Kausch, Rugle, & Rowland, 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2008 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, the more severe the baseline gambling involvement, the more likely the individual was to experience the onset of either an anxiety or substance use disorder.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Parhami et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“Mirroring the increased prevalence of anxiety disorders amongst women in the general population (GD: M = 1.26%; F = 2.79%), females with gambling disorder report disproportionately higher rates of anxiety disorders than males (GD/PG: M = 3.94%; F = 14.53%) (Desai & Potenza, 2008; Kessler et al., 1994).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Desai & Potenza, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 1994 source

In the paper

“Shared diatheses between anxiety and gambling disorder may thus be particularly pertinent to female presentations.”

In the paper

“These findings not only support that gambling and substance use pathology may have significantly overlapping mechanisms, but also suggest that aspects of repeated gambling or substance use may actively confer risk for one another through biological, behavioral, or environmental pathways.”

In the paper

“For gambling disorder and substance use disorders, it appears this relationship is bi-directional, as the presence of one of either of these conditions often predicts the onset of the other (Afifi, Nicholson, Martins, & Sareen, 2016; Kessler et al., 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Afifi, Nicholson, Martins, & Sareen, 2016 source
• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2008 source

In the paper

“In line with these findings, individuals with both anxiety and substance use disorders are at the highest risk to develop moderate to severe gambling behaviors, compared to those with one or neither of these disorders (el-Guebaly et al., 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites el-Guebaly et al., 2006 source

In the paper

“This consistently reported comorbidity between substance use disorders and gambling pathology has suggested that these syndromes may emerge from overlapping vulnerability factors, which cause them to often cohere in clinical presentations.”

In the paper

“In fact, childhood adversity and trauma exposure (e.g., abuse, neglect) are transdiagnostically associated with the onset of psychopathology for anxiety and substance use (J. G. Green et al., 2010) as well as gambling pathology (Felsher, Derevensky, & Gupta, 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites J. G. Green et al., 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Felsher, Derevensky, & Gupta, 2004 source

In the paper

“Further, the presence of an anxiety disorder has been associated with more severe symptomatology in both gambling and substance use (C. L. Green, Nahhas, Scoglio, & Elman, 2017; Ledgerwood & Petry, 2006; Najavits, Meyer, Johnson, & Korn, 2011; Possemato et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites C. L. Green, Nahhas, Scoglio, & Elman, 2017 source
• Not checked yetcites Ledgerwood & Petry, 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Najavits, Meyer, Johnson, & Korn, 2011 source

In the paper

“The high incidence of substance use disorders in individuals with anxiety and stress-related disorders has been strongly associated with self-medication, suggesting that individuals with stress-related conditions may be more vulnerable to misuse substances to cope with aversive affective states (J. Robinson, Sareen, Cox, & Bolton, 2011).”

In the paper

“Childhood adversity and trauma exposure may thus link these disorders together in comorbid presentations by triggering or sensitizing shared neurobiological vulnerability factors.”

In the paper

“Similarly, individuals with gambling disorder demonstrate elevated substance abuse symptoms compared to those without this condition (K.-L. Chou & Afifi, 2011; el-Guebaly et al., 2006; Parhami et al., 2014; Possemato et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites K.-L. Chou & Afifi, 2011 source
• Not checked yetcites el-Guebaly et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Parhami et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“Taken together, these findings suggest that anxiety disorders may also share vulnerability factors and mechanisms with addictive spectrum disorders.”

In the paper

“For example, individuals with alcohol or nicotine related substance use disorders often present with more severe gambling behaviors and involvement (Desai & Potenza, 2008; el-Guebaly et al., 2006; J. E. Grant & Potenza, 2005; Ladd & Petry, 2003; Petry & Oncken, 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Desai & Potenza, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites el-Guebaly et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites J. E. Grant & Potenza, 2005

In the paper

“Notably, gambling involvement, even at recreational levels, has been shown to predict the onset of anxiety or substance use disorders three years later (Parhami et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Parhami et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“The onset of a comorbid anxiety or substance use disorder has been significantly associated with endorsing gambling disorder diagnostic criteria (e.g. “gambling as an escape from negative affect”), supporting the notion that coping may play a significant role in the comorbidity between anxiety, substance use, and gambling disorders (Lister, Milosevic, & Ledgerwood, 2015; Parhami et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lister, Milosevic, & Ledgerwood, 2015 source
• Not checked yetcites Parhami et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“Similarly, individuals with anxiety disorders often report gambling to cope, providing an active pathway through which anxiety may lead to problematic gambling and alcohol use as a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy (Blaszczynski & Nower, 2002; Milosevic & Ledgerwood, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Blaszczynski & Nower, 2002 source
• Not checked yetcites Milosevic & Ledgerwood, 2010 source

In the paper

“Additionally, the lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorders in females with clinical gambling involvement (61.93%) is much greater than that observed for women in the general population (30%) (Blanco, Hasin, Petry, Stinson, & Grant, 2006; J. E. Grant et al., 2006; Kessler et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Blanco, Hasin, Petry, Stinson, & Grant, 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites J. E. Grant et al., 2006 source
• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“This dissociation between ‘liking’ and ‘wanting’ supports the existence of two distinct neural pathways that can independently undergo separate forms of plasticity.”

In the paper

“The same is believed to be true for a wide range of addictive substances including alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cannabis, and phencyclidine (Di Chiara & Imperato, 1988; Wise & Bozarth, 1987).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Di Chiara & Imperato, 1988 source
• Not checked yetcites Wise & Bozarth, 1987 source

In the paper

“In humans, studies show that dopamine levels are more highly correlated with subjective ratings of ‘wanting’ a reward than with pleasure ratings of that same reward (Leyton et al., 2002; Volkow et al., 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leyton et al., 2002 source
• Not checked yetcites Volkow et al., 2002 source

In the paper

“Similar findings suggesting blunted euphoria and response in opioid systems thought to be involved in ‘liking’ has been reported in individuals with gambling problems (Mick et al., 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mick et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“In fact, certain highly addictive drugs such as nicotine are exceedingly ‘wanted’ despite producing little to no feelings of pleasure or euphoria (Benowitz, 1996; Isomura, Suzuki, & Murai, 2014; West, 2009), and drug self-administration can be maintained in the absence of any subjective pleasure (Fischman & Foltin, 1992).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Benowitz, 1996 source
• Not checked yetcites Isomura, Suzuki, & Murai, 2014 source
• Not checked yetcites West, 2009 source

In the paper

“This increased urge for the drug is due to a sensitization of the neural pathways responsible for ‘wanting’ (Ferrario & Robinson, 2007; Ferrario et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ferrario & Robinson, 2007 source
• Not checked yetcites Ferrario et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“This process known as incentive sensitization renders individuals hyper-responsive to drugs and their cues.”

In the paper

“Instead, the pleasure that is often derived from taking a particular drug becomes dissociated from the amount to which it is ‘wanted’.”

In the paper

“The incentive sensitization theory provides a psychological framework and a common neural currency to explain the development of substance use and gambling disorders.”

In the paper

“The mesolimbic dopamine system is thought to be responsible for generating ‘wanting’ and assigning incentive salience to rewards and their cues.”

In the paper

“Beyond mesolimbic dopamine’s role in natural rewards and the self-administration of a wide range of addictive substances, recent evidence also suggests that gambling results in increases in mesolimbic and striatal dopamine release (Joutsa et al., 2012; Linnet et al., 2012; Linnet, Møller, Peterson, Gjedde, & Doudet, 2011; Zack & Poulos, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Joutsa et al., 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Linnet et al., 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Linnet, Møller, Peterson, Gjedde, & Doudet, 2011 source

In the paper

“In particular, specific individuals may be more vulnerable to addictive spectrum disorders due to a naturally heightened sensitivity to reward cues (T. E. Robinson, Yager, Cogan, & Saunders, 2014b; Yager & Robinson, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites T. E. Robinson, Yager, Cogan, & Saunders, 2014b
• Not checked yetcites Yager & Robinson, 2013 source

In the paper

“Moreover, studies in support of the classification of gambling disorder as a “behavioral addiction” have produced robust evidence for behavioral, cognitive, and biological similarities between gambling disorder and substance use disorders (Di Nicola et al., 2015; Leeman & Potenza, 2012; 2013; Potenza, 2008; Slutske, Ellingson, Richmond-Rakerd, Zhu, & Martin, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Di Nicola et al., 2015 source
• Not checked yetcites Leeman & Potenza, 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Potenza, 2008 source

In the paper

“However, under particular circumstances such as drug addiction, ‘liking’ and ‘wanting’ can be dissociated, where ‘wanting’ may even occur despite the fact that the user might not subjectively enjoy the reward itself (Berridge & Robinson, 2003; Berridge, Robinson, & Aldridge, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge & Robinson, 2003 source
• Not checked yetcites Berridge, Robinson, & Aldridge, 2009 source

In the paper

“In particular, following repeated exposure to drugs of abuse, which progressively increases ‘wanting’ and desire for more drug (Vezina, 2004; Vezina, Lorrain, Arnold, Austin, & Suto, 2002), individuals tend to escalate their consumption by increasing both the frequency with which drug is taken and the quantity consumed during each drug-taking episode.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Vezina, 2004 source
• Not checked yetcites Vezina, Lorrain, Arnold, Austin, & Suto, 2002 source

In the paper

“This evidence supports the view that subjective pleasure does not play a necessary causal role in drug taking behavior.”

In the paper

“Natural rewards such as food, water, and sex all share a common neural substrate.”

In the paper

“In fact, certain highly addictive drugs such as nicotine are exceedingly ‘wanted’ despite producing little to no feelings of pleasure or euphoria (Benowitz, 1996; Isomura, Suzuki, & Murai, 2014; West, 2009), and drug self-administration can be maintained in the absence of any subjective pleasure (Fischman & Foltin, 1992).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fischman & Foltin, 1992

In the paper

“However, repeated drug intake does not appear to produce a sensitization of ‘liking’ (Bartlett, Hallin, Chapman, & Angrist, 1997).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bartlett, Hallin, Chapman, & Angrist, 1997 source

In the paper

“In turn these cues can become motivational magnets that attract attention and trigger intense bouts of craving and desire to seek and take their associated drug reward (M. J. F. Robinson et al., 2013; M. J. F. Robinson, Fischer, Ahuja, Lesser, & Maniates, 2015b).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites M. J. F. Robinson et al., 2013
• Not checked yetcites M. J. F. Robinson, Fischer, Ahuja, Lesser, & Maniates, 2015b

In the paper

“These effects do not appear to be merely the result of shared environmental risk factors, as supported by the work of Petry and colleagues, which reported that alcohol use disorders were significantly related to gambling disorder even after controlling for sociodemographic variables highly associated with the risk for gambling pathology, including ethnicity, age, sex, marital status and region of”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Petry et al., 2005 source

In the paper

“These cues can trigger surges in dopamine release that promote intense craving.”

In the paper

“Together these repeated peaks of mesolimbic dopamine release lead to brain neuroadaptations, in particular, sensitization of these dopamine-related systems (T. E. Robinson & Becker, 1986; T. E. Robinson, Jurson, Bennett, & Bentgen, 1988).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites T. E. Robinson & Becker, 1986 source
• Not checked yetcites T. E. Robinson, Jurson, Bennett, & Bentgen, 1988 source

In the paper

“For nicotine, animal studies have shown that repeated intermittent injections of nicotine typically cause sensitization or enhancement of the drug’s locomotor activating effects (L. K. Baker et al., 2013; Benwell & Balfour, 1992; Clarke & Kumar, 1983; Vezina, McGehee, & Green, 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites L. K. Baker et al., 2013 source
• Not checked yetcites Benwell & Balfour, 1992 source
• Not checked yetcites Clarke & Kumar, 1983 source

In the paper

“Gambling environments are robustly full of cues, such as flashing lights and sounds (Griffiths, 1993; Noseworthy & Finlay, 2009; Parke & Griffiths, 2006), and gamblers have been shown to display greater attentional bias and fixate their gaze for longer on gambling-related cues (Hudson, Olatunji, Gough, Yi, & Stewart, 2016; McGrath, Meitner, & Sears, 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Griffiths, 1993 source
• Not checked yetcites Noseworthy & Finlay, 2009 source
• Not checked yetcites Parke & Griffiths, 2006 source

In the paper

“In particular, adolescent alcohol exposure amplifies the incentive value and attraction of reward-predictive cues (Hellberg, Levit, & Robinson, 2018; Madayag, Stringfield, Reissner, Boettiger, & Robinson, 2017), and does so through potentiation of dopamine signaling (Spoelder, Tsutsui, Lesscher, Vanderschuren, & Clark, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hellberg, Levit, & Robinson, 2018 source
• Not checked yetcites Madayag, Stringfield, Reissner, Boettiger, & Robinson, 2017 source
• Not checked yetcites Spoelder, Tsutsui, Lesscher, Vanderschuren, & Clark, 2015 source

In the paper

“In smokers, the presentation of smoking-related cues produces enhanced attentional bias towards those cues (Littel, Franken, & Van Strien, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Littel, Franken, & Van Strien, 2009 source

In the paper

“In fact, greater attentional bias to drug-related cues is not only greater in individuals suffering from substance use, but can actually predict rates of relapse after treatment for numerous drugs, including for nicotine (Jane Powell, Dawkins, West, Powell, & Pickering, 2010; Waters et al., 2003) and alcohol (W. M. Cox, Hogan, Kristian, & Race, 2002; W. M. Cox, Pothos, & Hosier, 2007), suggesting”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jane Powell, Dawkins, West, Powell, & Pickering, 2010
• Not checked yetcites Waters et al., 2003 source
• Not checked yetcites W. M. Cox, Hogan, Kristian, & Race, 2002 source

In the paper

“Similarly, repeated exposure to drugs of abuse and gambling can produce intense spikes of mesolimbic dopamine release.”

In the paper

“In humans, several reports have provided evidence of sensitization in psychostimulant drug users leading to enhanced drug-seeking, despite showing tolerance to the drug’s euphoric effects (Bartlett et al., 1997; Reed et al., 2009; Small et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bartlett et al., 1997 source
• Not checked yetcites Reed et al., 2009 source
• Not checked yetcites Small et al., 2009

In the paper

“Sensitization of mesolimbic dopamine function results in the amplification of the neural mechanisms for incentive salience that transform ordinary levels of cue-triggered ‘wanting’ into excessive levels of urges to take drugs and gamble, and a persistent vulnerability to relapse (Boileau et al., 2014; W. Y. Kim, Cho, Kwak, & Kim, 2017; Leyton, 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Boileau et al., 2014 source
• Not checked yetcites W. Y. Kim, Cho, Kwak, & Kim, 2017 source
• Not checked yetcites Leyton, 2007 source

In the paper

“Yet, sensitization does not increase ‘liking’ reactions that reflect the hedonic impact of the reward when it actually arrives (Bartlett et al., 1997).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bartlett et al., 1997 source

In the paper

“More recently, these behavioral indices of greater attentional bias and incentive salience attributed to drug cues have also been shown to possess several neural correlates that also predict relapse (Janes et al., 2010; Marhe, Luijten, van de Wetering, Smits, & Franken, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Janes et al., 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Marhe, Luijten, van de Wetering, Smits, & Franken, 2013 source

In the paper

“Sensitization caused by repeated drug use has been observed with many drugs of abuse, including alcohol and nicotine (Benwell & Balfour, 1992; Cadoni & Di Chiara, 2000; Govind, Vezina, & Green, 2009; Laviolette & van der Kooy, 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Benwell & Balfour, 1992 source
• Not checked yetcites Cadoni & Di Chiara, 2000 source
• Not checked yetcites Govind, Vezina, & Green, 2009 source

In the paper

“This incentive sensitization also produces hyperreactivity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system in response to reward-related cues, resulting in heightened, intense bouts of cue-induced craving.”

In the paper

“The cues in the gambling environment in and of themselves have demonstrated the ability to elicit craving and induce urges to gamble (Kushner et al., 2008; Park et al., 2015; Potenza et al., 2003; Wulfert, Maxson, & Jardin, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kushner et al., 2008
• Not checked yetcites Park et al., 2015 source
• Not checked yetcites Potenza et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, cues that predict reward with a large degree of uncertainty are also more likely to acquire incentive salience.”

In the paper

“The effects of uncertainty also parallel those robustly observed during amphetamine sensitization, suggesting that uncertainty may sensitize craving and reward-seeking comparable to drugs of abuse (M. J. F. Robinson, Anselme, Suchomel, & Berridge, 2015a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites M. J. F. Robinson, Anselme, Suchomel, & Berridge, 2015a

In the paper

“These findings regarding uncertainty are paradoxical since they contradict the idea that the motivational value of a cue should be monotonically related to its predictive value.”

In the paper

“For example, studies in rats suggest that uncertainty pertaining to the probability and magnitude of the reward outcome can cause attribution of additional incentive salience to reward-related cues.”

In the paper

“For example, individuals with gambling pathology show elevated craving, urges to gamble, physiological, and neurological reactivity to cues associated with gambling (Goudriaan, Yucel, & van Holst, 2014; van Holst et al., 2012; Wulfert et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Goudriaan, Yucel, & van Holst, 2014
• Not checked yetcites van Holst et al., 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Wulfert et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“and with self-reported levels of excitement during a gambling task (Linnet et al., 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Linnet et al., 2011 source

In the paper

“Various studies support that cue reactivity is heightened amongst individuals with problematic gambling and gambling behavior (Hønsi, Mentzoni, Molde, & Pallesen, 2012; Thalemann, Wölfling, & Grüsser, 2007; Wulfert et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hønsi, Mentzoni, Molde, & Pallesen, 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Thalemann, Wölfling, & Grüsser, 2007 source
• Not checked yetcites Wulfert et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“Studies have correlated striatal dopamine release in problem gamblers with severity of problem gambling (Joutsa et al., 2012)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Joutsa et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“Research has also found that problem gamblers have a sensitized dopaminergic response to gambling-related cues.”

In the paper

“Additionally, a study by Clark and colleagues found that near-misses (or almost winning) in a slot machine gambling task, recruited areas of the brain that respond to wins.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites L. Clark, Lawrence, Astley-Jones, & Gray, 2009 source

In the paper

“It is thought that reward uncertainty, like drugs of abuse, may also sensitize neural systems to rewards and reward-related cues (Anselme & Robinson, 2013; Anselme, Robinson, & Berridge, 2013; Berridge, 2007; Mascia et al., 2018; M. J. F. Robinson, Anselme, Fischer, & Berridge, 2014a; Rømer Thomsen et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Anselme & Robinson, 2013
• Not checked yetcites Anselme, Robinson, & Berridge, 2013 source
• Not checked yetcites Berridge, 2007 source

In the paper

“Men with gambling disorder that viewed the gambling scenario showed increased activation in regions previously shown to be involved in emotional and motivational responses (Potenza et al., 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Potenza et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“This sensitized ‘wanting’ that is present in problem gamblers, might explain their willingness to persist in gambling despite the negative consequences, such as significant financial losses.”

In the paper

“implying that loss has come to generate motivation in problem gamblers”

In the paper

“Crucially, it appears that repeated exposure to reward uncertainty subsequently increases risk preference on the rGT (Zeeb, Li, Fisher, Zack, & Fletcher, 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zeeb, Li, Fisher, Zack, & Fletcher, 2017 source

In the paper

“Exposure to an uncertain rather than a certain reward schedule (where both the chances of receiving a reward and the magnitude of this reward vary) significantly increases the attention and attraction directed to the reward cue, making uncertain reward-related cues appear more ‘wanted’(Anselme et al., 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Anselme et al., 2013

In the paper

“Similarly, the introduction of salient cues to winning trials, to what is termed the cued rGT, results in riskier and more disadvantageous choice behavior than when exposed to the uncued task (Barrus & Winstanley, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Barrus & Winstanley, 2016 source

In the paper

“A study by Linnet and colleagues found that problem gamblers exhibited increased dopamine release in their ventral striatum compared to healthy controls when they lost money in a gambling task, implying that loss has come to generate motivation in problem gamblers (Linnet, Peterson, Doudet, Gjedde, & Møller, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Linnet, Peterson, Doudet, Gjedde, & Møller, 2010 source

In the paper

“One study analyzed reports of craving in virtual casino environments and found gambling cues to increase subjective reports of craving in recreational gamblers (Park et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Park et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“For example, individuals playing blackjack in a gambling-like environment reported greater urges to gamble than those in a neutral context (Kushner et al., 2008; McGrath, Dorbeck, & Barrett, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kushner et al., 2008
• Not checked yetcites McGrath, Dorbeck, & Barrett, 2013 source

In the paper

“and that this dopaminergic signal appears to promote risk-seeking behavior, as evidenced in gambling (Fiorillo, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fiorillo, 2011 source

In the paper

“Interestingly, the effects of cue-induced craving extend beyond the physical casino environment and into the virtual gambling environment.”

In the paper

“However, it has been suggested that such contradictory reports can be explained by the absence of familiar or relevant gambling cues during laboratory testing (Leyton & Vezina, 2012)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leyton & Vezina, 2012 source

In the paper

“which when present instead produce an exaggerated striatal dopamine response (T. D. L. Steeves et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites T. D. L. Steeves et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“and this pattern of reactivity was associated with enhanced activation in regions linked to mesolimbic reward processing, including the medial prefrontal, anterior and posterior cingulate, striatal and posterior insula cortex (Sinha & Li, 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sinha & Li, 2007 source

In the paper

“However, the majority of this work has examined abnormalities in neural, cognitive, and behavioral reactivity towards threat cues versus neutral cues, or compared to healthy control populations (e.g. Dieterich, Endrass, & Kathmann, 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Dieterich, Endrass, & Kathmann, 2017 source

In the paper

“Stress, similar to drugs of abuse, may also induce neurological changes that enhance dopaminergic activity and the attribution of incentive value to rewards and their cues (Berridge, 2012; T. E. Robinson, Angus, & Becker, 1985; Yap et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Berridge, 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites T. E. Robinson, Angus, & Becker, 1985 source
• Not checked yetcites Yap et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“In particular, one human study demonstrated that uncertain rewards, similar to threats, result in increased insula responsivity (Gorka et al., 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gorka et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“In particular, there may be critical periods, such as during childhood, in which neural systems are particularly vulnerable to sensitization by stress (Rodrigues, Leão, Carvalho, Almeida, & Sousa, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rodrigues, Leão, Carvalho, Almeida, & Sousa, 2011 source

In the paper

“and support the evidence that the physiological reactivity elicited by stress cues may serve as a powerful catalyst for craving and subsequent relapse (Sinha et al., 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sinha et al., 2011 source

In the paper

“In turn, administration of CRF, has been shown to elevate the value of Pavlovian associated reward cues (Peciña et al., 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Peciña et al., 2006 source

In the paper

“Specifically, stress cues significantly increased both alcohol craving and reported anxiety levels in abstinent alcohol-dependent individuals (Fox et al., 2007)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fox et al., 2007 source

In the paper

“this evidence suggests a strong connection between reward uncertainty, gambling propensity, substance abuse and cue sensitivity.”

In the paper

“In this vein, stress has been shown to elicit similar neuroadaptations to alcohol and nicotine, increasing the excitatory strength of dopamine neurons in midbrain (e.g., VTA, NAc) in animals (Saal, Dong, Bonci, & Malenka, 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Saal, Dong, Bonci, & Malenka, 2003 source

In the paper

“One animal study has supported this model, with high anxiety animals demonstrating particular vulnerability to attend to reward-related uncertain cues (Hellberg et al., 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hellberg et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“These responses to stress cues were on the whole comparable to those induced by alcohol-associated cues (Fox et al., 2007; Sinha et al., 2009; Sinha & Li, 2007)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fox et al., 2007 source
• Not checked yetcites Sinha et al., 2009 source
• Not checked yetcites Sinha & Li, 2007 source

In the paper

“In all, research suggests that cues can become powerful instigators of gambling behavior.”

In the paper

“Interestingly, individuals with PD specifically have been shown to have particularly difficult experiences with withdrawal and high rates of relapse, due to the syndromic sensitivity to these intereoceptive arousal cues that characterize withdrawal from tobacco or other substances of abuse (Zvolensky & Bernstein, 2005; Zvolensky, Stewart, Vujanovic, Gavric, & Steeves, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zvolensky & Bernstein, 2005 source
• Not checked yetcites Zvolensky, Stewart, Vujanovic, Gavric, & Steeves, 2009 source

In the paper

“suggesting a possible pathway through which individuals suffering or predisposed to generalized anxiety disorder and exposed to high levels of uncertainty through gambling, might be inclined to abuse alcohol as a form of self-medication”