Reactive oxygen species, toxicity, oxidative stress, and antioxidants: chronic diseases and aging

In the paper

“Many natural antioxidants taken from diet or from supplements have very limited bioavailability and their in vitro antioxidant activity and ability to regenerate themselves have not been confirmed in cells or tissues (Jomova et al. 2019).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Section 2.2 says the paper’s in vitro antioxidant assay differs significantly from conditions in living cells and biological fluids, and that further assessment is needed before drawing conclusions about living systems. It does not establish that many dietary or supplemental antioxidants have very limited bioavailability, or address whether they regenerate themselves in cells or tissues. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Jomova et al. 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Among other pathologies, impaired neurotransmission, autoimmune dysfunction, abnormal neuronal development, and oxidative stress have been proposed (Kessler 1997; Salim 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kessler 1997 source
• Supported

  The ‘Schizophrenia and Oxidative Stress’ section explicitly lists abnormal neuronal development, impaired neurotransmission, and autoimmune dysfunction among proposed theories of schizophrenia. It then identifies oxidative stress as another such theory. The claim presents these as proposals, not established causes, matching the source’s qualification. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Salim 2014 source

In the paper

“Short-term caloric restriction in mice increases expression of all seven sirtuin (SIRT1-SIRT7) proteins (Maldonado et al. 2021) and overexpression of telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) which reduces telomere erosion from various tissues such as muscles, kidney, and lungs (Vera et al. 2013).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results section reports longer telomeres in lung, kidney, and muscle tissue after 23 months of caloric restriction. It does not show that short-term restriction increases TERT overexpression: the study compares wild-type mice with mice already overexpressing TERT, under restricted or control diets. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Vera et al. 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“It has been estimated that one puff of cigarette smoke contains approximately 1015 free radicals of various origins (Yang et al. 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Yang et al. 2008 source

In the paper

“Approximately 4–5% of oxygen in the human body is converted to ROS by biological reductants.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bandyopadhyay et al. 1999

In the paper

“A promising approach appears to be the use of certain antioxidants (e.g. flavonoids), showing weak prooxidant properties that may boost cellular antioxidant systems and thus act as preventive anticancer agents.”

In the paper

“Free radicals are chemical entities containing at least one unpaired electron in the outer shell which usually gives them high reactivity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Halliwell and Gutteridge 2015 source

In the paper

“ROS or RNS are formed during electron transfer reactions, by losing or accepting electron(s) (Halliwell and Gutteridge 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Halliwell and Gutteridge 2015 source

In the paper

“Perhaps one of the most effective low molecular weight antioxidants is vitamin E, the first line of defense against the peroxidation of lipids.”

In the paper

“In contrast, excessive formation of ROS is responsible for disrupted redox homeostasis which in turn leads to oxidative stress and ROS-mediated damage to all important biomolecules including DNA, proteins, and membranes (Liguori et al. 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Liguori et al. 2018 source

In the paper

“Oxidative stress contributes to the pathology of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, neurological disorders (Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, Down syndrome), psychiatric diseases (depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder), renal disease, lung disease (chronic pulmonary obstruction, lung cancer), and aging.”

In the paper

“Singlet oxygen is a very efficient oxidizing agent in biological systems and can cause damage to all biomolecules, including DNA.”

In the paper

“Ionizing radiation may cause radiolysis of water, accompanied by the formation of hydroxyl radicals (Nuszkiewicz et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nuszkiewicz et al. 2020 source

In the paper

“The efficient formation of hydroxyl radicals is achieved when stoichiometric quantities of redox metals are present and when a reducing agent (O2·−) that can recycle metal ions back to their active reduced form is present (Valko et al. 2005)8”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2005 source

In the paper

“Under physiological conditions, a vast majority of superoxide radical is present in the form of the radical anion (O2·−), and approximately only 0.6% exists in the protonated form as hydroperoxyl radical HOO· (pKa = 4.8); O2·− is the conjugate base of a weak acid HOO· (de Grey 2002)1”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites de Grey 2002 source

In the paper

“Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are nitrogen-containing species of which the most significant representative example is nitric oxide (NO·) (Ignarro et al. 1987).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ignarro et al. 1987 source

In the paper

“Another very important source of ROS, including hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion radicals are dynamic and metabolically active subcellular compartments, peroxisomes (Phaniendra et al. 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Phaniendra et al. 2015 source

In the paper

“The above set of reactions, resulting in the formation of superoxide radicals, has been shown to be omnipresent and a critical component in biological systems (Poole 2015; Adams et al. 1969; Davies et al. 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Poole 2015 source
• Not checked yetcites Adams et al. 1969 source
• Not checked yetcites Davies et al. 2022 source

In the paper

“In the course of this reaction, in neutral pH, metals (Fe or Cu) interact with carbonate and hydroperoxides resulting in the formation of carbonate radical anion CO3·−, which may dominate over the hydroxyl radicals when the concentration of bicarbonate is higher than 100 µM.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Illes et al. 2019 source

In the paper

“Hydroxyl radical is one of the most reactive radicals occurring in biological systems and causes damage to all important biomolecules involving DNA, proteins, and membranes (Valko et al. 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2007 source

In the paper

“Production of ATP is tightly linked with the formation of ROS which may be involved in the pathological states of an organism or physiological cell signaling (Valko et al. 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2007 source

In the paper

“The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a complex dynamic structure possessing many functions in the cell, the most important ones include calcium storage, lipid metabolism, and protein synthesis (Cao et al. 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Cao et al. 2022 source

In the paper

“Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidant but the kinetics of its reaction with biomolecules is rather slow and therefore it can be accumulated in cells in relatively high concentrations (Andres et al. 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Andres et al. 2022 source

In the paper

“Molecular oxygen in a triplet state contains two unpaired electrons with parallel spin states (↑↑) in antibonding π* orbitals and therefore is a biradical.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Halliwell and Gutteridge 2015 source

In the paper

“Singlet oxygen has a short half-life, about 10–6 s, depending on the media (Valko et al. 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2004 source

In the paper

“GI problems involve Crohn’s disease, reflux, esophagus cancer, and other disorders (Bhattacharyya et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bhattacharyya et al. 2014 source

In the paper

“There are three main forms of superoxide dismutase present in humans, Cu, Zn-SOD (SOD1), Mn-SOD (SOD2), and EC-SOD (SOD3) (Zelko et al. 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zelko et al. 2002 source

In the paper

“ERK plays important roles in the processes involving cell growth, cell proliferation, and cell survival (Lavoie et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lavoie et al. 2020 source

In the paper

“Antioxidant enzymes represent an important defense mechanism against ROS-induced oxidative stress, causing damage to all cellular components (Mates et al. 1999).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mates et al. 1999 source

In the paper

“Red meat contains high content of iron which may catalyze ROS formation in the colon in the process of digestion (Valko et al. 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2001 source

In the paper

“SOD was discovered in 1967 by Irwin Fridovich (McCord and Fridovich 1969).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites McCord and Fridovich 1969 source

In the paper

“Four main MAPK cascades have been identified: ERK1/2 (extracellular signal-regulated kinases), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), p38 (p38 kinase), and the BMK1/ERK5 (big MAP kinase 1) (Schaeffer and Weber 1999).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Schaeffer and Weber 1999 source

In the paper

“SODs can be inhibited also by copper chelators such as EDTA and cuprizone (a copper‐specific chelator) (Zhu et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zhu et al. 2014 source

In the paper

“Acrylamide can interact with hemoglobin and increase ROS formation (Bergmark et al. 1993).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bergmark et al. 1993 source

In the paper

“P38 is a major pathway influencing cell proliferation, cell cycle, and apoptosis, and is activated in response to various environmental stresses, involving inflammatory cytokines, oxidative and nitrosative stress, and DNA damage (Shahab and Jamesdaniel 2022; Zhang et al. 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shahab and Jamesdaniel 2022 source
• Not checked yetcites Zhang et al. 2016 source

In the paper

“The family of NF-κB consists of five structurally similar members, involving p50/p105 (NF-κB1), p52/p100 (NF-κB2), RelA (p65), RelB, and c-Rel (Liu et al. 2017).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Liu et al. 2017

In the paper

“Cells under a higher partial pressure of oxygen are permanently exposed to attack by ROS which is balanced by the concerted action of a sophisticated antioxidant defense system (Bandyopadhyay et al. 1999).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bandyopadhyay et al. 1999

In the paper

“A positive correlation between the high consumption of red meat and the incidence of colon cancer has been proposed (Valko et al. 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2001 source

In the paper

“A very large gradient (≈ 10,000) of calcium ions exists across the plasma membrane (Jomova et al. 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jomova et al. 2022 source

In the paper

“In addition, I-κB-Kinase (IKK) complex is the core component of NF-κB and is a target of ROS, affecting thus NF-κB and S-glutathionylation and inhibited IKKβ activity (Reynaert et al. 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Reynaert et al. 2006 source

In the paper

“The key role of Ca2+ is ATP synthesis and mitochondrial ROS formation through oxidative phosphorylation and activation of enzymes (Lewis et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lewis et al. 2014 source

In the paper

“The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) is an intracellular pathway involved in the regulation of a variety of critical cellular physiological processes involved in the cell cycle growth and proliferation and apoptosis, protein synthesis, and drug resistance in response to stimulation by growth factors, cytokines and hormones (Leslie and Downes 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leslie and Downes 2002 source

In the paper

“This enzyme catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide anion radical very effectively by a “Ping Pong” mechanism with remarkably high reaction rates according to the reaction (Zelko et al. 2002)12”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zelko et al. 2002 source

In the paper

“The nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is an important inducible transcription factor playing a key role in processes of the immune and inflammatory responses, cellular adhesion, differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis (Bonizzi and Karin 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bonizzi and Karin 2004 source

In the paper

“The reaction proceeds in two steps; the first step involves the reduction of the first molecule of H2O2 accompanied by the formation of oxyferryl species (FeIVO) and in the course of the second step, the FeIVO complex is reduced by the second molecule of H2O2 to O2, and H2O molecules and free enzyme (Lardinois 1995; Nandi et al. 2019)14and15”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lardinois 1995 source
• Not checked yetcites Nandi et al. 2019 source

In the paper

“The abundance of GSH is unusually high, the cytosol concentration is ca 1–11 mM, mitochondria contain 6–10 mM, and nuclei 3–15 mM of GSH.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lushchak 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2006 source

In the paper

“Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble antioxidant present in the diet, supplements, and preservatives (Kazmierczak-Baranska et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kazmierczak-Baranska et al. 2020 source

In the paper

“Manganese is a transition metal capable of oscillating between several oxidation states which makes it suitable for the accommodation of superoxide radical anion and the design of SOD mimetic compounds (Vincent et al. 2021).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Vincent et al. 2021 source

In the paper

“Prooxidant properties of vitamin C in the presence of redox-active metal ions and oxygen have been confirmed predominantly under in vitro conditions, occurrence under in vivo conditions has not been convincingly documented (Halliwell 1996).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Halliwell 1996 source

In the paper

“The most representative examples of small molecular antioxidants involve vitamins C, E, and A, polyphenols of which about half are flavonoids, carotenoids, glutathione, curcumin, melatonin, and others (Niki 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Niki 2016 source

In the paper

“Catalase breaks down two molecules of hydrogen peroxide into two water molecules and one molecule of oxygen (Nandi et al. 2019)13”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nandi et al. 2019 source

In the paper

“GPx-1 acts in the intracellular environment and maintains the physiological level of hydrogen peroxide, which is important in mitochondrial function, thiol redox homeostasis, and signal transduction (Brigelius-Flohé and Maiorino 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brigelius-Flohé and Maiorino 2013 source

In the paper

“Compounds containing sulfur are usually good antioxidants able to accommodate unpaired electron(s), which in turn result in the formation of thiyl radicals (GS·), whose lifetime is rather high and therefore damage to biological molecules is very mild (Karoui et al. 1996)22”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Karoui et al. 1996 source

In the paper

“This compound and its modified analog BXT-51072 were able to delay neurological deficits, and acute ischemic stroke, inhibit the inflammatory response, suppress oxidative damage, and other beneficial oxidative stress-reducing properties (Forman and Zhang 2021).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Forman and Zhang 2021 source

In the paper

“GPx reduces lipid hydroperoxides to alcohols and hydrogen peroxide to water (Lubos et al. 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lubos et al. 2011 source

In the paper

“Deficiency of Vitamin E is related to neurological problems (National Institutes of Health 2021).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites National Institutes of Health 2021

In the paper

“These involve among others, the Se-based organic compound ebselen, possessing a wide substrate specificity (Sies 1993a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sies 1993a

In the paper

“A linear correlation between the reduction potentials of flavonoids and their antioxidant potential has been reported (Lindgerg Madsen et al. 2000).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lindgerg Madsen et al. 2000

In the paper

“ERG reacts fast with hydroxyl radicals, and its reaction with hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radical anion is somewhat slower (Fahey 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fahey 2001 source

In the paper

“A low incidence of cardiovascular diseases has been linked to the consumption of red wine containing a high concentration of resveratrol, a multipurpose molecule possessing various beneficial and health-protecting properties, involving antioxidant, and antitumor properties.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Catalgol et al. 2012 source

In the paper

“In addition, flavonoids can activate the synthesis of antioxidant enzymes and regenerate vitamins with higher electron reduction potential of the corresponding couples, such as vitamin E (Fig. 12) (Simunkova et al. 2019a, b).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Simunkova et al. 2019a, b

In the paper

“Food-derived hydrophilic antioxidant ergothioneine is distributed to the brain and exerts antidepressant (Nakamichi et al. 2016) and neuroprotective (Yang et al. 2012) activities in mice.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nakamichi et al. 2016 source
• Not checked yetcites Yang et al. 2012 source

In the paper

“Melatonin is found in various tissues other than the pineal gland, involving the pancreas, liver, brain, lens, thyroid, and others (Mahmood 2019).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mahmood 2019 source

In the paper

“Se is an essential component of many proteins, called selenoproteins (Zhang et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zhang et al. 2020 source

In the paper

“Melatonin acts together with vitamin D as “light sensors” to meet the requirements for light and dark (Minich et al. 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Minich et al. 2022 source

In the paper

“ERG occurs in two tautomeric thione and thiol forms, the thione form being more abundant at physiological pH (Borodina et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Borodina et al. 2020 source

In the paper

“Resveratrol has been associated with the so-called “French paradox”, which has been reported in 1992, based on epidemiological data from the French population known for the low incidence of cardiovascular diseases despite the consumption of a high-fat diet (Catalgol et al. 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Catalgol et al. 2012 source

In the paper

“ERG ameliorates oxidative stress at the sites of injuries and has been classified as an “adaptive antioxidant” because it does not interfere with the physiological function of ROS (Halliwell et al. 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Halliwell et al. 2016 source

In the paper

“Supplements containing Se help to boost the immune system, Se is sometimes combined with vitamins C and E (Shakoor et al. 2021).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shakoor et al. 2021 source

In the paper

“ERG has been found to be an effective antioxidant in cardiovascular diseases (Servillo et al. 2017), chronic pulmonary diseases (Rahman 2012), lung inflammatory diseases (Repine and Elkins 2012), and other pathologies.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Servillo et al. 2017 source
• Not checked yetcites Rahman 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Repine and Elkins 2012 source

In the paper

“Ergothioneine (ERG) is a sulfur-histidine betaine amino acid possessing antioxidant properties (Fig. 14) (Borodina et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Borodina et al. 2020 source

In the paper

“Thus carotenoids behave under normal conditions as antioxidants, however, under a high partial pressure of oxygen (and high concentration) they may lose their antioxidant properties and behave as prooxidants.”

In the paper

“Since the thyroid gland contains a high amount of selenium, it has been expected that supplementation by Se may help to improve thyroid function. However, the results were not straightforward (Winther et al. 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Winther et al. 2015 source

In the paper

“The concept of oxidative stress in greater detail has been for the first time defined by Prof. Sies in 1985 (Sies 1985, 2018, 2020a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sies 1985
• Not checked yetcites Sies 2018 source
• Not checked yetcites Sies 2020a

In the paper

“Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is a heme-containing peroxidase released mainly by neutrophils (Davies and Hawkins 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Davies and Hawkins 2020 source

In the paper

“In view of this, a more complex definition of oxidative stress, based on the disruption of redox signaling has been proposed (Jones 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jones 2006 source

In the paper

“Xanthine oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid (antioxidant) accompanied by the formation of superoxide radical anion, O2·−, and hydrogen peroxide (McCord 1985).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites McCord 1985 source

In the paper

“There are many assays, which can be applied in the “quantification” of oxidative stress, however, whether oxidative stress is a consequence or cause of the diseases is impossible to conclude.”

In the paper

“Contrary to expectations, additional supplementation with vitamin C did not increase the level of vitamin E, which documents, that the in vitro redox recycling of vitamin E by vitamin C does not work in humans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Salonen et al. 2000 source

In the paper

“Since the enhanced antioxidant status has not been shown to be effective in the alleviation of oxidative stress, a new approach based on the thiol redox pool has been proposed (Jones 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jones 2006 source

In the paper

“These products are structurally stable and suitable for chemical detection (Stadtman 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Stadtman 2004 source

In the paper

“Melatonin occurs in mitochondria in higher abundance compared to blood. This is due to the higher requirements for an antioxidant pool in mitochondria containing electron transport chain (Tan et al. 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Tan et al. 2015 source

In the paper

“Many in vitro experiments under different experimental conditions confirmed the good antioxidant activity of melatonin, however, levels of melatonin in certain body organs might not be high enough to exhibit antioxidant properties (Sanchez-Barcelo et al. 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sanchez-Barcelo et al. 2010 source

In the paper

“Cu, Zn-SOD is known to be increased as a response to certain therapies or in some diseases therefore determination of activities of different SODs is necessary (Crapo et al. 1992).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Crapo et al. 1992 source

In the paper

“Further studies documented the oxidation of vitamin E after the attack of ROS, however, the oxidation of vitamin E has not provided protection against lipids or damage to other biomolecules associated with chronic diseases (Niki and Noguchi 2021).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Niki and Noguchi 2021 source

In the paper

“XDH can be converted to XO by the oxidation of thiols (Fig. 19) (Enroth et al. 2000).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Enroth et al. 2000 source

In the paper

“The term oxidative stress in relation to biological systems appeared for the first time in the scientific literature in the early 70’s (Azzi 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Azzi 2022 source

In the paper

“Various disease states are characterized by disturbed metal homeostasis, such as hemochromatosis (iron overload) and flavonoids in the presence of iron (or other redox metals) behave as prooxidants, increasing the total amount of ROS (Valko et al. 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Valko et al. 2005 source

In the paper

“Thus, XO is one of the most important ROS-generating enzymes and can be used as a sensitive biomarker of oxidative stress.”

In the paper

“While EGCG is a good antioxidant in various radical scavenging assays, in plasma is its antioxidant activity limited (Rasaei et al. 2021).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rasaei et al. 2021 source

In the paper

“Interestingly, in 2020–2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic period, melatonin was the most sought-after supplement to optimize levels of cytokines linked with disturbed sleeping (Minich et al. 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Minich et al. 2022 source

In the paper

“Thus, the catalase activity in the studied system is conversely proportional to the obtained signal (Hadwan 2018).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hadwan 2018 source

In the paper

“Melatonin and vitamin D act synergistically in skin protection (Wacker and Holick 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wacker and Holick 2013 source

In the paper

“MPO converts hydrogen peroxide and chloride anions to hypochlorous acid and protects the organism against toxins and pathogens.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Davies and Hawkins 2020 source

In the paper

“Oxidative eustress means “good stress” and is characterized by low to mild levels of oxidants involved in the regulation of various biochemical transformations such as carboxylation, hydroxylation, peroxidation, or modulation of signal transduction pathways (Forman et al. 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Forman et al. 2010 source

In the paper

“The presented results indicate, that in man, supplementation with high doses of antioxidants does not always ameliorate the oxidative stress component of various disease states of an organism or oxidative stress is not the only cause of the diseases.”

In the paper

“Heterogenous molecules originating from the nonenzymatic reaction of glucose or other saccharides with proteins or lipids are termed advanced glycation end products (AGEs) (Perrone et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Perrone et al. 2020 source

In the paper

“MPO-derived oxidant 3-Cl-Tyr is occurring in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and therefore is a good biomarker of cardiovascular diseases (Bergt et al. 2004)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bergt et al. 2004 source